Working class: structure, growth, class, mobilization

Evolution of Industrial Society and Working Class

The development of industrial society marks a significant transformation in social, economic, and labor relations. Central to this transformation is the emergence and evolution of the working class, a social group whose experiences and struggles reflect the changes brought by industrialisation and capitalism.

Definition of the Working Class

The working class primarily consists of industrial workers engaged in wage labor. M. Holmstrom (1991) defines the working class as industrial workers and, in some cases, extends this category to include other wage earners and self-employed workers. What distinguishes the working class is their shared economic situation, which sets them apart from employers, property owners, and managerial classes. This group depends on the sale of their labor power for survival and is subject to the dynamics of capitalist production.

In the Indian context, Dev Nathan highlights the complexity of the working class due to the country’s multi-structural economy. Here, pre-capitalist relations continue to coexist alongside capitalist and imperialist economic structures. This coexistence creates a differentiated and fragmented working class composed of diverse forms of labor, shaped by varying circuits of production, consumption, and accumulation. The multiplicity of these economic relations results in distinct patterns of working-class existence, reflecting the intersection of traditional and modern economic systems.

Sections of the Working Class in India

The Indian working class can be broadly divided into four sections based on their earnings and living conditions:

1. Higher-earning Workers: These workers earn more than the family wage, meaning they make more than the value necessary to reproduce their labor power. This segment enjoys relatively better economic stability and living standards.

2. Standard-Earning Workers: These individuals earn a family wage that is sufficient to meet both the costs of production (physical maintenance) and reproduction (raising future workers) of their labor power at a reasonable standard of living.

3. Struggling Workers: This group earns just enough to meet immediate labor costs but must rely on non-capitalist sectors (such as informal or subsistence activities) to survive or reduce their standard of living considerably.

4. Pauperised Workers: At the lowest rung, these workers cannot cover even the immediate cost of reproducing their labor power, reflecting extreme deprivation and vulnerability.

Factors Affecting Working-Class Composition

The structure of the working class in India is profoundly shaped by social factors such as caste, tribal affiliations, and ethnic origins. The persistence of pre-capitalist social relations influences the position and mobility of workers within the capitalist economy. Additionally, gender plays a significant role; patriarchal societal norms create gender-based divisions of labor that affect the roles, wages, and working conditions experienced by male and female workers differently.

Worker Mobilisation

Worker mobilisation is a critical process in the evolution of the industrial working class. It involves the collective awakening of workers to their shared interests and the organization of collective efforts to defend or improve their socio-economic conditions. Mobilisation can take various forms, including the formation of trade unions, collective bargaining with employers, strikes, and protests. These collective actions aim to secure better wages, safer working conditions, job security, and other benefits. The growth of worker mobilisation reflects the increasing consciousness among workers about their rights and the power of unity in confronting capitalist exploitation.

Evolution of the Indian Working Class

The evolution of the Indian working class is deeply intertwined with the country’s colonial history and economic transformations. Before industrialisation took root, India’s economy was largely agrarian and artisanal, with peasants and craftsmen producing goods mainly for local consumption. The advent of British colonial rule and the Industrial Revolution in Britain dramatically altered this economic landscape, laying the foundation for the emergence of the Indian working class.

Origins Before 1840

Prior to 1840, India’s economic life was dominated by agriculture and small-scale cottage industries. The consolidation of British rule post-1800 marked a turning point, as Britain’s industrial revolution created a voracious demand for raw materials and markets. India became a key supplier of raw materials like cotton, coal, and jute, feeding British industries while simultaneously serving as a vast market for British manufactured goods, particularly textiles. This colonial economic arrangement resulted in the exploitation of Indian peasants, who were forced to produce raw materials cheaply. Simultaneously, the traditional artisan sector was devastated as imported British factory goods displaced hand-made Indian products, causing widespread unemployment and loss of indigenous skills.

Early Industrialisation (1840-1900): The Emergence of the Working Class

The industrial sectors that first emerged in India were primarily jute and cotton mills, alongside the growth of tea plantations. These industries marked the nascent formation of a working class engaged in wage labor. The establishment of the railway network by 1854, initially designed to facilitate resource extraction and transport, also became a significant source of industrial employment by 1860. Concurrently, indentured labor systems sent over half a million Indian workers to other British colonies, highlighting the global dimensions of colonial labor exploitation.

By the end of the 19th century, about 300,000 Indians were factory and mine workers, enduring harsh conditions characterized by 16-hour workdays, low wages, and frequent industrial accidents. The first workers’ protests and strikes began during this period in cities like Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, focusing on improving working hours, conditions, and welfare. However, these early movements were largely spontaneous, limited in scope, and short-lived. Both workers and employers formed associations during this time, such as the Bombay Mill Owners' Association and early workers’ groups, marking the beginning of organized labor representation.

Second Phase (1900-1914): The Rise of Trade Unions

The early 20th century witnessed the expansion of industrialisation, especially with the introduction of electricity in 1905, which increased workloads and working hours. This intensified exploitation led to a more organised labor resistance and the rise of trade unions. During this period, workers began linking their economic struggles to the larger nationalist freedom movement. Leaders of the Swadeshi movement and other nationalists recognized the importance of worker mobilisation in the struggle against British rule.

In 1908, Bombay’s textile workers launched the first direct political struggle against the colonial government. The period following World War I saw rapid industrial growth and profits, but also heightened labour unrest.

Third Phase (1915-1922): Popularisation of Workers’ Movements

The global political upheavals, notably the 1917 Russian October Revolution, inspired Indian workers to intensify their demands for rights. In 1918, textile workers in Ahmedabad, led by Mahatma Gandhi, waged a major struggle, which resulted in the formation of the Textile Labour Association. The same year saw the creation of the Madras Labour Union, India’s first modern trade union. The international establishment of the International Labour Organisation (ILO) in 1919 further motivated Indian workers.

By 1920, India boasted over 125 trade unions with 250,000 members. A major strike involving more than 200,000 Bombay textile workers resulted in a significant victory. In October of that year, the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was formed under leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai, uniting 64 unions and 150,000 workers.

Fourth Phase (1923-1939): Emergence of Communist Ideology

The spread of communist ideology during this phase shaped the labour movement’s direction. Leaders like S.A. Dange and M.N. Roy were instrumental in embedding Marxist principles within the working class, positioning trade unions as instruments of class struggle aimed at challenging capitalist exploitation.

Fifth Phase (1940-1947): World War II and Independence Struggle

World War II exacerbated the complexities within the labour movement. The war effort required increased industrial production, leading employers to extend working hours, introduce shift work, and even employ child labor. While some welfare measures were introduced, exemptions from labour laws gave employers greater control.

In 1940, a major strike involving 175,000 Bombay textile workers demanded a Dearness Allowance in response to rising inflation. Despite government repression, the workers prevailed, and similar strikes spread nationwide. The working class also actively participated in the nationalist struggle for independence, exemplified by the 1946 postal workers' strike. In early 1947, the Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) was established, rallying 200 unions and 575,000 workers.

Sixth Phase (Post-Independence Era)

Post-independence, the labour movement witnessed fragmentation as trade unions aligned with various political parties. Socialist groups formed the Hind Mazdoor Panchayat, which later merged with the Hind Mazdoor Sabha, while the Communist Party (Marxist) formed the Centre for Indian Trade Unions (CITU). Despite these splits, the working-class movement continued to gain strength through joint struggles and a growing consciousness of class solidarity.

The economic depression of the 1960s and the Industrial Disputes Act challenged unions’ effectiveness, but government reforms introduced wage boards and dispute tribunals to mediate conflicts. The 1970s and 1980s saw the rise of independent, local-level unions, which were more democratic and responsive to workers’ needs compared to the bureaucratised national federations.

Key Highlights of the Indian Working-Class Evolution

Throughout these phases, women workers played an increasingly vital role, with over 200 trade unions and 250,000 members by 1935 involving women. The infusion of leftist ideologies positioned trade unions as class organisations aiming to transform capitalist relations. Despite colonial repression and political challenges, the Indian working class nurtured a growing sense of class consciousness and solidarity that contributed both to labour rights and the broader nationalist movement.

Trade Unions in India: Key Insights

Trade unions have played a crucial role in shaping the labour landscape in India. However, despite their historical significance and ongoing contributions, trade unions in India face challenges related to limited growth, uneven sectoral presence, and the changing nature of the workforce. This essay explores key insights into the current state of trade unions in India, their diverse functions, and reflections from an influential study on union dynamics.

Low Growth of Trade Unions

One of the persistent issues facing Indian trade unions is their relatively low overall coverage. Only about 28% of the non-agricultural workforce in India is unionised, a figure that remains low compared to many European countries with stronger traditions of worker organisation. This limited growth is unevenly distributed across regions and sectors. States such as Maharashtra, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, and Kerala together account for approximately 70% of trade unions and 66% of union membership nationwide.

Sector-wise, unionisation is concentrated in traditional industries. For instance, coal mining enjoys a unionisation rate of around 61%, textiles 56%, and iron and steel 63%. Even the banking sector reports a relatively high union density of 51%. However, other emerging sectors have not witnessed comparable union growth.

Limited Growth in Real Wages

While labour struggles and union activities have secured economic gains for workers, these have often been negated by inflationary pressures. The rising prices of essential commodities have eroded increases in nominal wages, resulting in negligible growth in real wages for the average Indian worker. This highlights the ongoing economic challenges faced by labour despite union efforts.

Changing Nature of the Working Class Post-Globalisation

The economic liberalisation and globalisation of the 1990s ushered in a structural transformation of India’s workforce. The rapid expansion of the service sector, particularly Information Technology Enabled Services (ITeS) and Information Technology (IT), gave rise to a new class of white-collar and managerial employees. Unlike traditional industrial workers, these newer employees are less unionised and more fragmented.

Moreover, the growth of the gig economy, with platforms like Swiggy and Uber, has created a large pool of informal workers who lack the protections of formal employment. While these gig workers have traditionally remained unorganised, recent developments have seen the emergence of unions such as the All India Gig Workers Union (AIGWU) and the All India IT & ITeS Employees' Union. These groups have begun advocating for gig workers’ rights, organising strikes and campaigns such as those involving Swiggy and Uber drivers.

Importance of the Working Class in India’s Future

Given this historical trajectory, the working-class movement continues to hold immense potential for shaping India’s labour future. Trade unions and worker activists will play a vital role in influencing labour policies, protecting worker rights, and pushing for reforms that address the challenges posed by economic transitions and globalisation.

Functions of Trade Unions

Trade unions perform a wide range of functions that can be categorised into militant, fraternal, social, and political roles.

• Militant Functions: Unions actively fight for increased wages, improved working conditions, and protection from exploitation. They strive to raise the status of workers within industries and safeguard them from unfair treatment.

• Fraternal Functions: Beyond economic struggles, unions enhance workers’ morale and wellbeing, foster self-confidence, promote discipline, and specifically work to protect women workers from discrimination and exploitation.

• Social Functions: Unions engage in welfare activities such as health and safety initiatives, provide educational opportunities, mediate workplace grievances, and contribute to research and publishing to empower workers.

• Political Functions: Trade unions often align with political parties to leverage political support. They assist in fundraising, membership drives, and seek political backing during industrial disputes such as strikes and lockouts.

E. A. Ramaswamy’s Study on Trade Unions in Coimbatore’s Textile Industry

E. A. Ramaswamy’s seminal 1977 study of trade unions in Coimbatore’s textile industry offers critical insights into union dynamics in India. Contrary to the prevailing assumption that caste identities would undermine class solidarity, Ramaswamy found that workers’ loyalty to their unions transcended caste divisions—even when employers belonged to the same caste as many workers. This finding emphasized the potential for class-based unity in the workplace despite entrenched social divisions.

The study also revealed that the influence of political parties on trade unions was largely confined to electoral politics. While unions expected their members to support affiliated political parties during elections, the daily operations of unions and workplace issues remained largely autonomous from political interference.

Features of the Urban Working Class in India

The urban working class in India is a vital segment of the country’s labor force, particularly in the context of rapid urbanisation and industrial growth. This class exhibits a range of distinctive features shaped by migration, socio-economic conditions, and cultural diversity. Understanding these characteristics is essential to grasp the complexities of urban labor struggles and the evolving nature of work in Indian cities.

Migration and Social Links

A significant feature of the urban working class is its migratory nature. The majority of urban workers have migrated from rural areas in search of better economic opportunities. Despite relocating to cities, many migrants maintain strong familial and social ties to their native villages. These ties often influence their social behaviour, remittances, and temporary return during festivals or agricultural seasons. Migration thus creates a dual identity where workers navigate between urban demands and rural connections.

Traditional Occupations and Social Strata

Among migrant workers, many retain elements of their traditional occupations, especially those from lower social strata. Occupations such as barbers, cobblers, and manual laborers continue to be significant within the urban working class. These roles often have caste and community associations, reflecting how traditional social structures persist even in urban settings.

Illiteracy and Its Consequences

A large portion of the urban working class is illiterate or has minimal formal education. This illiteracy restricts workers’ awareness of their legal rights and protections under labor laws. It also limits their ability to participate fully in formal negotiations or engage with union activities, thereby weakening their bargaining power.

Diversity Within the Urban Working Class

The urban workforce is highly heterogeneous, encompassing workers from a multitude of castes, religions, languages, and regions. This diversity is particularly visible in metropolitan centers where the urban economy attracts migrants from all parts of India. While this diversity enriches urban culture, it also poses challenges for worker solidarity, as social divisions can sometimes overshadow class unity.

Prevalence of the Unorganised Sector

A considerable share of urban workers is employed in the unorganised sector, including street vendors, domestic helpers, and casual laborers. These workers typically face precarious economic conditions and lack access to formal employment benefits such as minimum wages, bonuses, and social security. The absence of adequate legal protection makes this segment especially vulnerable to exploitation.

Increasing Awareness Through Media

Exposure to modern communication tools such as television, smartphones, and social media has increased the awareness of urban workers about employment opportunities and workers’ rights. This improved awareness enhances their capacity to negotiate better conditions and seek alternative livelihoods when necessary.

Unsafe Working and Living Conditions

Many urban workers endure unsafe working environments and substandard living conditions. Slum housing with poor sanitation, unreliable electricity, and inadequate access to clean water are common among the urban poor. These conditions adversely affect their health and overall quality of life, perpetuating cycles of poverty and vulnerability.

Unity Amidst Diversity

Despite internal diversity, the shared experiences of economic exploitation and marginalization foster a collective consciousness among urban workers. This sense of unity often translates into the formation of workers’ associations, unions, and social movements aimed at securing legal protections and improving their socio-economic status.

Insights from N. R. Sheth’s Study (1958)

N. R. Sheth’s anthropological study of a factory in the early 1960s provided a nuanced understanding of the urban working class. Contrary to the belief that traditional culture impedes industrial commitment, Sheth found that caste and kinship norms actually promoted worker loyalty and dedication to their factories and supervisors. These traditional cultural ties instilled a sense of obligation and discipline among workers, contributing to stable industrial relations.

Findings from Mark Holmstrom’s Study (1976)

Mark Holmstrom’s research in Bangalore factories further challenged stereotypes about Indian workers. He observed that Indian factory workers’ attitudes towards work were broadly similar to those of workers in developed countries, demonstrating comparable levels of motivation and work ethic. This contradicted the perception of Indian workers as passive or overly traditional, highlighting the universal aspects of labor dynamics across cultures.

Problems of Workers in the Informal Sector and Exclusion from Class Movements

The informal sector in India comprises a vast majority of the workforce and plays a crucial role in the country’s economy. However, workers in this sector face unique and persistent problems that not only affect their livelihoods but also their participation in broader class-based labor movements. Understanding these challenges is vital to addressing the structural inequities that marginalize informal workers from mainstream labor politics.

Over-Commitment and Job Insecurity

Workers in the informal sector often exhibit what is termed as “over-commitment” to their work. Unlike traditional interpretations that linked this behavior to cultural attitudes toward labor, contemporary analysis highlights that over-commitment primarily stems from insecurity. The absence of permanent employment contracts and the precarious nature of their jobs compel informal workers to invest disproportionate time and effort to sustain their livelihood. This over-commitment reflects survival strategies in an environment lacking job stability, social security, and legal protection.

Challenges in Worker Mobilization

Mobilizing informal sector workers poses significant difficulties, primarily because these workers are excluded from the protections and rights granted to formal sector employees. Labor laws concerning minimum wages, job security, social benefits, and union rights generally do not apply to casual, contract, or daily wage workers. Davala’s 1992 study of eight major industries in India revealed that casual and contract workers outnumber permanent workers; however, this vast informal workforce remains largely unorganized and unrepresented by trade unions.

Trade unions have historically viewed informal workers with suspicion, perceiving them as vulnerable to employer manipulation. Employers often exploit this vulnerability by deploying informal workers as strikebreakers or substitutes during union actions, further deepening the divide between formal and informal labor sectors. This exclusion weakens the collective bargaining power of the working class as a whole.

Impact of Liberalisation and Changing Redress Mechanisms

Economic liberalisation and market reforms since the early 1990s have altered the landscape of industrial relations. Traditional methods of worker redress, such as strikes and lockouts, have become less effective due to increased employer flexibility, contract labor usage, and the informalisation of work. Trade unions now face the challenge of innovating their strategies to remain relevant. This includes advocating for industrial democracy, promoting worker cooperatives, and encouraging alternative models of ownership such as employee stock options, which can potentially empower workers economically and politically.

Decline of Class-Based Politics

Another major challenge is the diminishing influence of class-based politics in India’s labor movement. The rise of identity-based politics rooted in caste, religion, and language has fragmented the working class and diverted attention from economic struggles to social and cultural issues. This shift has weakened solidarity among workers and complicated efforts to organize broad-based class movements centered on shared economic interests.

Exclusion of White-Collar and Tech Employees

Since the 1991 reforms, India’s workforce has seen significant growth in white-collar and technology sectors. Despite their increasing numbers, these employees remain largely excluded from traditional labor movements, which have predominantly focused on manual and industrial labor sectors. The absence of unionization and collective bargaining mechanisms for these new categories of workers poses a challenge to the inclusivity and representativeness of class movements.

Low Female Participation and Gendered Challenges

Women, who constitute a substantial portion of the informal labor force, face additional hurdles in participating in trade unions and workers’ movements. Historically, women’s representation in organized labor has been low due to multiple factors including patriarchal attitudes, gender discrimination, and the invisibility of domestic and care work. A feminist perspective is urgently needed to address these gender-specific challenges and to integrate women’s rights into broader labor struggles. Empowering women workers is crucial not only for social justice but also for strengthening the overall labor movement.