Women's movement
The women’s movement in India has a rich and layered history that reflects the evolution of Indian society itself. Rooted in social reform and political resistance, the movement has transformed across different historical phases, from addressing entrenched social customs to fighting for contemporary gender justice. The ideological content of the women’s movement has grown more inclusive and assertive over time, encompassing diverse demands ranging from legal reforms and political rights to bodily autonomy and freedom from violence. Broadly, the trajectory of the Indian women’s movement can be divided into three phases: the colonial period, the post-independence era, and contemporary times.
1. Colonial Period: Reform within the Framework of Tradition
The women’s movement in India first emerged in the 19th century within the context of colonialism and the parallel rise of social reform movements. This early phase was closely aligned with the broader reformist efforts initiated by male social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, M.G. Ranade, and Keshub Chandra Sen. These reformers, often influenced by Western liberal ideas and Enlightenment thought, sought to address oppressive customs such as sati, child marriage, and the denial of education to women.
The focus of the movement during this period was largely protective and reformative rather than revolutionary. Women themselves played a limited but growing role in these reform initiatives. The early 20th century saw the emergence of pioneering women like Pandita Ramabai, Begum Rokeya, and Sarojini Naidu, who began to articulate the cause of women from within the framework of nationalism and social justice. However, the ideology of this phase remained moderate, aiming for reform within the existing patriarchal and colonial systems rather than a complete structural transformation.
2. Post-Independence Period: From Citizenship to Gender Justice
With independence in 1947, India adopted a democratic constitution that promised equality and non-discrimination. This provided a new framework for the women’s movement to assert itself. The second phase of the women’s movement focused on translating constitutional rights into lived realities. The emphasis shifted toward securing women’s rights in areas such as education, healthcare, employment, and legal equality.
Key legislative achievements during this period included:
The Hindu Code Bills (1955–56), which gave women rights in marriage, divorce, and inheritance.
The Equal Remuneration Act (1976), which mandated equal pay for equal work.
Efforts to increase women’s literacy and participation in public life.
Simultaneously, the women's movement started becoming more autonomous and grassroots-driven, especially from the 1970s onwards. Influenced by both global feminist currents and local realities, organizations such as the Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) and various women's collectives began to raise issues related to dowry deaths, custodial rape, and female foeticide. The Mathura rape case (1972) became a turning point, mobilizing public outcry and leading to changes in laws related to custodial rape and sexual violence. This period marked a shift from a welfare-based approach to a rights-based approach, with women increasingly questioning the patriarchal state and demanding autonomy, safety, and dignity.
3. Contemporary Women’s Movements: Intersectional and Digital Mobilization
In the 21st century, the women’s movement in India has entered a new, diversified and digitally connected phase. Contemporary women's movements address a broad spectrum of issues that reflect the complex and intersectional nature of gender oppression in modern India. These include:
Sexual harassment and workplace safety (e.g., #MeToo movement in India).
Reproductive rights and bodily autonomy, including access to safe abortions and menstrual health.
Gender-based violence, such as the protests following the 2012 Nirbhaya gang rape.
Equal representation in politics and corporate leadership.
LGBTQ+ inclusion and trans rights, recognizing that gender justice extends beyond cisgender women.
Moreover, these movements increasingly adopt an intersectional lens, highlighting how caste, religion, class, sexuality, and region affect women differently. Dalit feminist voices, Muslim women’s campaigns (e.g., against triple talaq), and Adivasi women’s land rights struggles are all integral parts of the contemporary feminist landscape.
Social media has become a powerful platform for activism, enabling decentralized mobilizations and making the movement more participatory and inclusive. Campaigns like Pinjra Tod, Bekhauf Azadi, and Internet Saathi reflect the creative, youth-driven energy of the current wave of feminism in India.
PHASE 1: Social Reform Movements, National Movement, and Social Reform Legislation in the Colonial Period
The women’s movement in colonial India emerged within the broader context of colonial modernity, nationalism, and social reform. It was shaped by a complex interplay of internal societal contradictions and the external influence of British colonial rule. The early phase of the movement was largely reformist in nature, spearheaded by male social reformers, yet it laid the crucial foundation for later feminist assertions. This period can be understood through its key concerns: social reform, nationalist awakening, and legislative interventions aimed at improving the condition of women.
Concerns of the Women’s Movement in the Colonial Period
The concerns of the early women’s movement were largely shaped by two interconnected forces—social reform movements and nationalist movements. These emerged in response to the oppressive structures within traditional Indian society and the challenges posed by colonial domination.
Ramachandra Guha’s Perspective
Historian Ramachandra Guha notes that women began articulating their own voices in the public domain as early as 1886, most notably with Tarabai Shinde’s groundbreaking work Stri Purush Tulana (A Comparison Between Women and Men). This was a radical critique of the patriarchal norms and institutions that hindered women’s education and autonomy. Shinde’s feminist consciousness reflected the beginning of self-aware resistance to gendered oppression.
Social Reform Movements: Roots and Goals
The 19th century witnessed the rise of social reform movements across colonial India, spurred by the emergence of a new English-educated intelligentsia who were influenced by Western liberalism, Enlightenment ideals, and humanism. These reformers viewed Indian society as morally degraded and sought to address deeply entrenched practices like:
Sati
Child marriage
Female infanticide
Polygamy
Denial of education and property rights to women
Economic Changes and New Intelligentsia
Colonial economic restructuring and the introduction of Western education gave rise to a new class of Indian intellectuals who became the torchbearers of progressive reform. They recognized that the condition of women was both a moral and national concern and began advocating for reforms as a way to demonstrate India’s readiness for self-rule.
Cultural Defense and Modernization
As K.N. Panikkar argued in his 1975 Indian History Congress speech, the reformers engaged in a project of “cultural defense”—simultaneously resisting British cultural hegemony while selectively embracing modern values. This created a paradox: the desire to modernize society while retaining Indian cultural traditions, particularly with regard to gender roles.
Leadership of Social Reformers
The social reform movement was led by prominent male reformers who took a paternalistic yet progressive approach toward women’s issues:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Led the campaign against sati and advocated for women’s education.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar: Championed widow remarriage and girls’ education.
M.G. Ranade: Promoted widow remarriage and legal reforms for women.
Keshab Chandra Sen: Emphasized female education through Brahmo Samaj.
Swami Dayanand Saraswati and Swami Vivekananda: Advocated women’s spiritual and educational upliftment, linking reforms with nationalist ideals.
Legislative Reforms as Tools of Change
Reformers strategically employed legislation to achieve tangible improvements in women’s status:
Abolition of Sati (1829): Outlawed the immolation of widows, a landmark in colonial social legislation.
Widow Remarriage Act (1856): Legitimized the remarriage of Hindu widows.
Age of Consent Act (1860): Criminalized intercourse with girls below the age of ten, later amended to raise the minimum age.
Impact of Social Reform Movements
The colonial social reform movements laid the foundation of women's rights activism in India by:
Promoting education for women, creating a class of educated Indian women.
Advocating legal safeguards against harmful social practices.
Influencing public opinion and challenging orthodox resistance.
However, these efforts often remained within the patriarchal framework, seeking to redefine rather than dismantle traditional gender roles.
Further Developments and Symbolic Legislation
In the late 19th century, additional reforms addressed broader aspects of women's autonomy:
Special Marriage Act (1872): Allowed inter-caste and interfaith marriages and laid the groundwork for women’s civil rights in marriage.
Married Women’s Property Act (1874): Secured women’s rights to stridhan and inherited property.
Age of Consent Act (1891): Raised the marriageable age of girls to 12.
These reforms symbolized progress but were limited in scope and impact, often bypassing the lived realities of most Indian women, especially in rural and lower-caste communities.
Women’s Education and Public Participation
Legislative reforms played a role in breaking prejudices around women’s education. Over time, educated women began entering public life. By the early 20th century:
Women began forming organizations and participating in political debates.
More women began writing, speaking, and organizing on issues of national concern.
Women in the National Movement
The Indian freedom struggle provided a platform for women’s mass mobilization. Though their participation was often limited to symbolic or supportive roles, it was nonetheless significant:
During the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–32), over 30,000 women participated.
Gandhi encouraged women’s involvement, often framing it as an extension of their domestic duties.
The Government of India Act (1935) granted limited voting rights to women, a milestone in their political enfranchisement.
Organized Women’s Movement and Political Participation
The early 20th century saw the emergence of women-led organizations that laid the groundwork for feminist activism:
OrganizationFounder(s)YearPurposeBharat Stri Maha MandalSarala Devi1910Unite women across caste and creedKanchi Mahila ParishadParvati DeviEarly 1900sEducate and mobilize womenWomen’s Indian Association (WIA)Annie Besant, Margaret Cousins1917Socio-economic and political emancipationNational Council of Women in India (NCWI)-1925Internationally linked women's bodyAll India Women’s Conference (AIWC)Margaret Cousins1927Focused on education and legal reform
Women like Kamala Devi Chattopadhyaya emerged as political leaders, becoming the first woman to contest elections in 1926 under limited franchise provisions.
Critique of Social Reform and Nationalist Movements
Despite these achievements, the early women’s movement had limitations:
No Radical Challenge to Patriarchy: The reforms addressed symptoms, not structures, of patriarchal oppression.
Colonial Influence: Many reforms were reactive, spurred more by colonial critique than indigenous feminist awakening.
Male-Led Institutions: Women's voices were mediated through male reformers.
No Structural Shift in Gender Power Relations: The image of the ‘new woman’ still emphasized domesticity and obedience.
Tokenism in Nationalist Movements: Women’s roles in freedom struggles were framed as patriotic extensions of their family duties.
Neglect of Muslim Women: Reforms predominantly focused on Hindu women; Muslim women were largely marginalized.
PHASE 2: CONSTITUTIONAL-LEGAL PHASE OF WOMEN’S MOVEMENT IN INDIA
After India’s independence, the women's movement entered a new constitutional-legal phase, wherein gender justice became embedded within the framework of a modern democratic state. This period focused on channeling the earlier reformist zeal through legal and constitutional means, aiming to build an egalitarian society free from discrimination based on caste, creed, religion, or sex. The goal was to safeguard women’s rights and integrate gender equality into the fabric of independent India's legal and political institutions.
The Telangana Movement (1946–1951): Assertion Against Patriarchy and Feudalism
Though situated in the late colonial period, the Telangana peasant rebellion significantly influenced post-independence gender consciousness. Women were active participants in resisting the feudal oppression of landlords, who subjected peasant girls to bonded labor and sexual slavery. The Communist Party mobilized women through the creation of platforms such as the Andhra Vanitha journal, addressing issues like child marriage, widow remarriage, and wage parity. Leaders like Chityala Ailamma, Dubala Salamma, and Malla Swarajyam emerged as symbols of women's assertion in political resistance, laying a foundational ethos for future feminist movements.
The Chipko Movement (1972): Eco-Feminism and Resource Rights
The Chipko Movement marked a shift toward environmental justice framed by gendered experiences. In the village of Advani in Tehri Garhwal, illiterate Adivasi women, led by Gaura Devi, confronted forest contractors attempting to fell thousands of trees. The women linked ecological degradation to their survival needs, asserting their right to control and protect natural resources. This movement became a landmark in eco-feminism, highlighting how environmental exploitation intersects with women's daily struggles and agency.
PHASE 3: POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD – EVOLUTION OF WOMEN’S MOVEMENT
Early Decades (1950s–1960s): Development without Gender Lens
In the immediate post-independence period, the focus of nation-building centered around economic growth, industrialization, and poverty alleviation. Women’s issues were absorbed within broader developmental concerns, and there were few targeted programs for women's welfare or empowerment. The assumption prevailed that constitutional equality would automatically ensure gender justice, an assumption later proved erroneous.
Civil Society and NGO Involvement (1970s Onward): From Welfare to Empowerment
By the 1970s, grassroots NGOs began promoting participatory and empowerment-based approaches, replacing the earlier welfare-centric models. These organizations helped mobilize women at the community level, allowing them to collectively voice concerns and demand rights. As noted by scholar Nirmala Banerjee, even where measurable success was limited, women exhibited significant transformation in self-perception, leadership, and awareness through collective action.
1974: The Watershed Moment – Towards Equality Report
The Government of India commissioned the Committee on the Status of Women in India (CSIW), culminating in the landmark Towards Equality report. Its findings were stark: despite legal equality, women remained marginalized economically, politically, and socially. Only 10% of Indian women were literate, merely 4% were employed in central government jobs, and about 70% of girls were married before the age of 18. Dowry had intensified as a cultural scourge, and women’s development was virtually absent from the national policy agenda.
This report shattered the myth of gender equality and catalyzed a new phase in the women’s movement — one that recognized the need for autonomous, organized struggle against systemic patriarchy.
Rise of Autonomous Women’s Movements (Late 1960s–1980s)
A dual movement emerged. On one hand, elite urban women’s organizations engaged in cultural activities and limited reform. On the other, grassroots women's collectives fought for survival rights — against alcoholism, wife-beating, sexual harassment, and poor working conditions.
Examples include:
Shramik Mahila Sangathana: Raised issues like food adulteration, inflation, and women’s economic struggles.
National Federation of Indian Women (NFIW): Linked to CPI, yet also addressed gender-specific concerns.
The movement was diverse in organizational types:
Government Initiatives: Policy and Legal Reforms
The Indian Constitution guaranteed equality under Articles 14, 15, and 16. In tandem, institutions like the Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) were established to fund and facilitate women's welfare projects. These state mechanisms, however, often lacked grassroots linkage and were top-down in nature, leading to the rise of independent feminist platforms.
Post-1975 Surge: Global Feminist Solidarity and Legal Demands
The declaration of 1975 as the International Women’s Year gave a significant push to gender issues in India. This led to:
Formation of groups like Saheli, Manushi, Stri Mukti Sangathana, and Pennurimai Iyakkam.
Legal awareness campaigns and protests against:
Dowry deaths
Rape and custodial violence
Workplace sexual harassment
These autonomous groups rejected the patronizing frameworks of earlier state-led reform and emphasized women’s agency.
Academic Contributions to Feminist Thought
Vina Mazumdar and Lotika Sarkar were pioneers in initiating Women’s Studies in Indian academia.
Maitrayee Chaudhuri categorized the movement into three phases:
Phase 1 (1901–1947): Women gained political rights without mass agitation.
Phase 2 (1947–1987): Women became conscious of systemic oppression.
Phase 3 (1987 onwards): Emergence of a rights-based movement pushing for gender-specific laws and identity-based mobilization.
The Anti-Arrack Movement (1990s): Local Voices, Global Relevance
In Dubagunta village, Andhra Pradesh, rural women spearheaded a powerful movement against alcoholism. Arrack — a cheap, local liquor — was devastating families and communities. Women, often dismissed as weak, stood up through what became known as the “historic bangle waged” — a symbolic assertion of feminine strength and dignity. The movement not only forced a state ban on arrack but also became a classic example of intersectional grassroots feminism.
#MeToo Movement: A Sociological Analysis
The #MeToo movement represents a critical juncture in the global fight against gender-based violence, power asymmetries, and workplace harassment. While often viewed through legal or cultural lenses, the movement offers rich ground for sociological analysis, revealing how structures of patriarchy, class, and technology intersect with resistance and reform. From its global origins to its unique manifestation in India, #MeToo has spurred discourse, reforms, and debates on the nature of consent, justice, and women's agency.
The movement began in 2006 with American activist Tarana Burke, who coined the term “Me Too” to support survivors of sexual violence, especially Black women in low-income communities. It resurfaced globally in 2017 when actress Alyssa Milano urged women to share their harassment stories on Twitter, catalyzing a digital movement. In India, #MeToo gained momentum in 2018 when actress Tanushree Dutta publicly accused actor Nana Patekar of sexual harassment, prompting an outpouring of testimonies from women across professions including journalism, academia, law, and entertainment.
Sociological theories provide deep insights into the structure and impact of the #MeToo movement. Resource Mobilisation Theory, developed by McCarthy and Zald, explains how social media enabled survivors to mobilize, coordinate, and share experiences, overcoming barriers of isolation and fear. Structural Strain Theory suggests that Dutta’s case served as a triggering event in a society already burdened by latent tension around gender inequality and impunity, leading to spontaneous collective action. Functionalist theorists would interpret #MeToo as a mechanism to restore balance in society by integrating women more safely into public life and workplaces, correcting institutional dysfunctions.
Feminist and Marxist perspectives argue that #MeToo unmasks the embedded power asymmetries in capitalist and patriarchal systems, where women’s labor is exploited and their bodies policed. The movement challenges the male dominance in both economic and cultural spheres. Symbolic Interactionism brings attention to the micro-level meanings women attach to their experiences, highlighting how harassment is perceived and narrated differently across urban and rural settings, shaped by class, caste, and location. Reference Group Theory helps explain how Indian women drew inspiration from the American movement, using it as a model to structure their own resistance. Relative Deprivation Theory emphasizes the psychological dimension—women, though formally equal under the law, felt deprived of respect and safety, creating a collective grievance that fuelled activism. Finally, Collective Action Theory shows that many women joined the movement not just emotionally, but with rational calculations about solidarity, visibility, and potential change.
The movement had multiple sociological functions. Manifest functions included improvements in workplace policies, increased vigilance, and reduction in blatant harassment. Latent functions involved the transformation of workplace culture, the boosting of women’s confidence, and the erosion of patriarchal silence around sexual violence. However, access to #MeToo remained unequal. Women from the informal sector, such as construction workers or domestic laborers, were largely excluded due to the digital divide and class-based marginalisation. This exclusion raises critical questions about intersectionality and the accessibility of feminist movements in digital spaces.
The impact of #MeToo has been felt across social, political, cultural, and economic domains. Socially, the National Commission for Women reported a sharp rise in harassment complaints—from 570 in 2017 to 965 in 2018—indicating greater willingness among women to speak out. Informal modes of justice, such as naming and shaming on social media, were seen by many as more effective than legal channels. Politically, figures like Maneka Gandhi advocated for new mechanisms to address the flood of complaints, and there were renewed calls for reforming workplace safety laws. Culturally, the cinema industry, historically male-dominated and opaque, began witnessing internal reform, with collectives like the Women in Cinema Collective (WCC) emerging to demand accountability. The movement also amplified the voices of Dalit and working-class women, bringing intersectionality to the fore. Economically, projects involving accused individuals were shelved, companies invested more in workplace security, and there was a perceptible rise in anxiety among male executives about potential allegations—sometimes resulting in recruitment biases against women.
Yet, #MeToo also faced significant challenges. Several women faced defamation lawsuits for naming powerful men, as seen in the case of journalist Priya Ramani versus former minister MJ Akbar. Legal processes remained slow, and many complaints in public institutions awaited resolution, undermining the credibility of institutional redress. In some cases, companies indulged in tokenism, falsely reporting zero complaints despite having large female workforces. A darker consequence has been the quiet reluctance among employers to hire women, for fear of legal and reputational risk—a backlash that could ironically reinforce gender exclusion.