Violence Against Women
Violence against women is a profound social issue that undermines women’s independent identity and dignity. At its core, this violence is rooted in unequal power relations between men and women, reflecting deeply entrenched gender hierarchies. Understanding violence against women requires a gendered perspective that acknowledges the systemic nature of patriarchy and the cultural norms that sustain it.
India’s alarming position as the fourth most dangerous country for women, according to the 2011 Thomas Reuters Foundation poll, underscores the severity of this problem. The poll identified female foeticide, child marriage, and high levels of trafficking and domestic servitude as key contributors to this dangerous status. Madhukar Gupta, former Indian Home Secretary, estimated that around 100 million people, mostly women and girls, are involved in trafficking. The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) further highlights that out of 142 million "missing" women globally, 46 million are from India, due to practices like prenatal sex selection, female infanticide, and neglect. Statistical appraisals show a sharper decline in the population share of female children compared to males, reflecting persistent gender bias from infancy.
The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (PWDVA) of 2005 is a landmark legislation that recognizes four types of domestic violence—physical, sexual, emotional/verbal, and economic abuse—signaling the multifaceted nature of violence women endure. Data from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) 2011 reveals that cruelty by husbands and relatives constitutes the largest proportion of reported crimes against women (43.4%), followed by molestation (18.8%) and rape (10.6%), among other forms of violence.
Violence manifests differently across life stages. Pre-birth violence includes female foeticide and physical strain on pregnant women; infancy sees female infanticide and neglect; childhood is marred by child marriage and sexual abuse; adolescence faces eve teasing, rape, and trafficking; adulthood encounters domestic violence, marital rape, and dowry-related abuse; while old age brings abuse of elderly women and widows, alongside threats of sexual violence and deprivation of care.
The factors contributing to violence against women are complex and deeply embedded in social, cultural, economic, and institutional frameworks. Socio-cultural traditions, as noted by Veena Das, perpetuate patriarchal norms where religion and culture justify male superiority and control. Uma Charavotry emphasizes that despite progressive laws, cultural patriarchy continues to overshadow legal protections. Joanna Liddle and Rama Joshi’s work on the intersectionality of gender, caste, and class highlights how upper-caste patriarchy maintains economic dominance through these divides, perpetuating violence. Family history plays a role, with women exposed to violence in childhood more vulnerable to abuse later, as Kalpana Bardhan explains.
Socio-demographic factors also influence vulnerability; young, old, illiterate, poor women or those without independent income face higher risks. Economically, women who challenge traditional gender roles by having greater financial status than their husbands often face increased violence. Media and pornography contribute by normalizing hostility and sexual objectification, reinforcing harmful gender stereotypes, a phenomenon noted by Neera Desai. Law enforcement and legal systems frequently fail women, with Madhu Kishwar and Ruth Vanita highlighting gaps between constitutional promises and ground realities. Moreover, ineffective laws and gender bias within the justice system further hinder women’s protection. Alcohol consumption exacerbates violence by lowering inhibitions and fueling aggression.
In conclusion, violence against women in India is a multifaceted problem sustained by deep-rooted patriarchal structures and socio-economic inequalities. Addressing it requires not only stronger laws and enforcement but also societal transformation to challenge cultural norms and power imbalances that legitimize such violence. Only through a comprehensive, gender-sensitive approach can the dignity and safety of women be truly safeguarded.
Consequences and Implications of Violence Against Women
Violence against women has far-reaching consequences that affect not only the individuals involved but also the broader society and economy. Its implications cut across public health, economic productivity, social development, and labor equity, revealing how deeply entrenched gender violence undermines progress and equality.
Firstly, violence against women is a significant public health issue. It causes a wide spectrum of physical injuries, ranging from minor bruises to life-threatening trauma. Beyond physical harm, the psychological toll is severe, with many survivors suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts. Sexual violence often leads to reproductive health problems, including sexual dysfunction and complications related to fertility. The trauma can also impair women’s ability to make informed decisions regarding their reproductive health, severely affecting their self-esteem and autonomy.
Secondly, violence has a profound economic impact. It directly reduces women’s productivity by limiting their participation in the workforce or entrepreneurial ventures. Women subjected to violence often face absenteeism, reduced efficiency, or complete withdrawal from economic activities, which in turn diminishes their income-earning potential and sustains cycles of economic dependence and poverty. This not only curtails women’s individual economic growth but also hampers overall economic development by sidelining a vital segment of the population.
From a development perspective, violence against women poses a critical barrier. It restricts women’s decision-making power regarding childbearing and family planning, which are essential for sustainable population and health management. The National Population Policy of India (2000) explicitly acknowledges violence as a deterrent to women’s reproductive rights. Additionally, the high costs incurred by law enforcement and judicial systems in addressing violence-related cases divert resources from other developmental priorities, creating a fiscal strain that impacts broader societal progress.
Socially, violence against women restricts their engagement in public and political life, stifling opportunities for empowerment and leadership. The fear and trauma associated with violence often confine women to domestic spheres, limiting their social mobility and contribution to community decision-making. Monisha Behalts’ research in Mainpuri, Uttar Pradesh, highlighted how excessive workloads, poor health, drudgery, and poverty collectively erode women’s mental and physical well-being, perpetuating a cycle of social stagnation and exclusion.
Lastly, violence against women intersects with labor inequality, compounding women’s burdens. Utsha Patnaik’s analysis reveals a striking disparity in annual work hours: while bullocks work about 1,064 hours and men 1,212 hours, women toil for an overwhelming 3,485 hours annually, much of it unpaid domestic labor. This disproportionate labor load, exacerbated by violence and its consequences, severely limits women’s capacity to engage in economic or social activities beyond their traditional roles, reinforcing gendered inequalities.
In conclusion, violence against women is not merely a private or individual problem but a pervasive societal challenge with multi-dimensional consequences. It impairs women’s health, diminishes economic productivity, obstructs development goals, limits social participation, and deepens labor inequalities. Addressing this violence is therefore essential not only for safeguarding women’s rights and dignity but also for achieving equitable and sustainable societal progress.