Slums and deprivation in urban areas
Slums are a prominent feature of India’s urban landscape, reflecting deep-seated socio-economic challenges. According to the Census of India, slums are residential areas characterized by dwellings unfit for human habitation due to factors like dilapidation, overcrowding, faulty design, narrow streets, and lack of adequate ventilation, sanitation, or light—conditions that endanger the health and safety of residents.
As per the 2011 Census, approximately 65 million people in India live in slums, accounting for about 17.4% of urban households. These settlements can exhibit extraordinarily high population densities, reaching as much as 277,136 persons per square kilometer, underscoring the intense overcrowding typical of slum environments.
Causes of Slum Emergence
The rapid pace of urbanization in India has outstripped the development of infrastructure and affordable housing, driving the growth of slums. Massive rural-to-urban migration funnels poor families into cities where formal housing options are scarce or unaffordable. The prevalence of poverty forces many into makeshift homes lacking basic amenities. Additionally, a large informal economy composed of street vendors, daily wage workers, and other informal laborers often lacks access to formal housing or land rights, perpetuating slum dwellings. Government policies and urban planning have historically been insufficient, resulting in inadequate intervention to curb or manage slum proliferation.
Historically, thinkers like Lewis Mumford traced the origins of slums to the 19th-century rise of industrial modern cities and factory systems in Britain. Frederick Engels famously documented in his study of Manchester how industrialization created enormous demand for urban factory labor but failed to provide adequate wages or housing, spawning slum conditions that remain relevant in contemporary India.
Functions and Characteristics of Slums
Despite their hardships, slums fulfill vital functions. They provide affordable shelter to the urban poor and incoming migrants, often forming communities that preserve ethnic, regional, or tribal identities. W.F. Whyte described slums as informal “orientation centres,” helping newcomers find jobs and adapt to urban life. Slums also offer anonymity, attracting not only migrants but marginalized groups and even individuals involved in illegal activities.
Typical slum conditions include poorly constructed housing, lack of ventilation and sanitation, and severe overcrowding. Atul Thakur noted that about 30% of Indians live in less space than legally allotted to prisoners in the USA, highlighting the dire housing crunch. Slums often house marginalized groups such as Dalits, Adivasis, and transgender persons, who face discrimination in formal housing markets. Health conditions in slums are alarming, with unsanitary environments fostering chronic diseases, high child mortality, and the presence of pests. Slums also experience higher rates of crime, deviance, and social pathologies, a distinction noted by Harrington between “slums of despair” and “slums of hope.” The presence of organized crime and local strongmen often exacerbates lawlessness.
Culture and Social Life in Slums
Oscar Lewis’s concept of the “culture of poverty” helps explain how slum communities develop distinct social systems. Slums are not merely spaces of deprivation but cultural worlds with their own symbols, habits, and coping mechanisms passed down through generations. This culture helps residents navigate hardships but can also contribute to social isolation and alienation.
Slum dwellers often suffer from social exclusion and an inferiority complex due to their living conditions, leading to marginalization from mainstream urban society. Wilhelm Whyte’s ethnographic work revealed that while outsiders perceive slums as dangerous and chaotic, residents experience them as organized and supportive communities. Geeta Dewan Verma critiques slums as symptomatic of broader societal and governmental apathy and moral failure.
Thinkers and Perspectives on Slums
R. Desai and S. Devadas Pillai highlighted how state-led development policies have deepened inequalities, creating an urban elite while many remain propertyless and impoverished. Gita Dewan Verma attributes urban squalor to moral bankruptcy in governance rather than resource scarcity. M.S.A. Rao challenged the narrative of slums solely as poverty centers, viewing them as hubs of rich cultural traditions. M.S. Gore emphasized the complementary nature of slums to urban growth, with migrants in slums playing essential roles in city infrastructure development, providing emotional and social lifelines to urban life.
Marxist sociologists interpret slums as products of capitalist exploitation, where the urban poor supply cheap labor benefiting wealthier classes but gain little in return. G.S. Ghurye viewed slums as “other cultures” distinct from mainstream Indian society and noted that slum-based protests question national unity.
Solutions and Measures
Addressing slum conditions requires multifaceted strategies. Rehabilitation programs must focus on improving basic amenities such as healthcare and education, exemplified by initiatives like Delhi’s Mohalla Clinics that provide affordable local health services. Affordable housing schemes and promotion of rental housing options can help alleviate the housing shortage.
Decentralization through the development of suburbs and satellite towns can reduce the pressure on city centers. Political empowerment of slum residents by strengthening Urban Local Bodies can ensure participatory governance, better delivery of services, and give slum communities a stronger voice in urban planning.