Problems of religious minorities
In a culturally plural society like India, religious minorities often find themselves entangled in complex webs of identity, discrimination, and marginalization. A religious minority is defined by Arnold Rose as a group differentiated by religion, race, nationality, or language, who both perceive themselves and are perceived by others as distinct, usually with negative connotations. They are often relatively powerless, and consequently subjected to discrimination, exclusion, and various forms of unequal treatment. According to the International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, such minorities are also marked by reduced access to resources and representation. In the Indian legal framework, the Supreme Court defines minorities through a statistical lens—communities constituting less than 50% of a state’s population are considered minorities. These definitions collectively underline both the perception and structural position of minorities in society.
Jagannath Pathy identifies four central dimensions of the problems faced by religious minorities: subordination, deprivation, inferiority, and distinctiveness. Subordination refers to their physical and economic vulnerability, which is evident in the case of Muslims and Christians in India, many of whom reside in impoverished urban ghettos or marginalized rural areas with limited access to healthcare, sanitation, and employment. A stark example is the Sachar Committee Report (2006), which highlighted the dismal socio-economic status of Indian Muslims—comparable to or worse than that of Dalits.
Deprivation, the second dimension, involves limited access to material resources, employment, and education. Data from the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) and Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) have shown that Muslim youth have higher unemployment rates compared to the national average. Educational deprivation is also evident in the low gross enrollment ratios of Muslim students in higher education. Inferiority is reinforced by the dominance of the majority Hindu culture in media, official symbols, festivals, and public discourse. For instance, despite India’s constitutional secularism, political campaigns and public celebrations are often majoritarian in tone, sidelining minority sensibilities.
Distinctiveness, or cultural visibility, makes religious minorities easily identifiable and hence more vulnerable. The hijab controversy in Karnataka schools (2022), where Muslim girls were barred from wearing headscarves, is a contemporary illustration of how visible markers of religious identity can become a ground for exclusion and conflict.
Beyond these four dimensions, religious minorities face a range of interconnected problems. Lack of distributive justice is evident in the poor implementation of schemes meant for their upliftment, like the Prime Minister’s 15-Point Programme. Cultural alienation and marginalization occur when minorities are excluded from mainstream narratives, as seen in textbook content or cinema. Physical insecurity remains a grave concern, with episodes like the Delhi riots of 2020 exposing the vulnerability of minority communities during communal conflicts.
Underrepresentation in civil services, judiciary, and politics further weakens their voice. Despite making up over 14% of the population, Muslims account for only 4-5% of the Indian Administrative Services and Parliament. The ghettoization of minority communities—e.g., Jamia Nagar in Delhi or Mumbra in Mumbai—reinforces social exclusion and restricts access to better services. Anomie or normlessness, often emerges when minorities, caught between cultural preservation and assimilation, experience identity confusion.
In extreme cases, radicalization and terrorism emerge as a reaction to persistent alienation and structural violence. This is not to justify such acts, but to underline the sociological roots of such phenomena. For instance, the arrest of radicalized youth from minority backgrounds often links back to years of social exclusion and discrimination. Similarly, identity crises and stereotyping, such as the labelling of entire communities as "anti-national" or "terrorist sympathizers"—as was often observed during the anti-CAA protests—create long-lasting psychological scars and social mistrust.
Lastly, the politicization of religion, especially in electoral campaigns, threatens India’s secular fabric. When mainstream political parties invoke religious sentiments for votes, it undermines the constitutional promise of equality and justice for all communities. The treatment of Kashmiri Pandits, many of whom continue to face housing discrimination even after migration, or the targeted violence against Christians in tribal regions of Chhattisgarh and Manipur, further demonstrates how religious identity continues to be a source of social tension.
Problems of Muslims in India
India, as a pluralistic democracy, constitutionally guarantees equality and religious freedom to all its citizens. Yet, religious minorities—particularly Muslims, who constitute over 14% of the population—continue to face multifaceted challenges. These challenges are rooted in a complex interplay of historical, political, socio-economic, and cultural factors, and are compounded by institutional biases and rising majoritarian nationalism.
1. Historical Tensions and Colonial Legacy
The seeds of communal tension between Hindus and Muslims were sown during British colonial rule. The "Divide and Rule" policy deliberately encouraged communal identities to weaken the anti-colonial struggle. The Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909, which introduced separate electorates for Muslims, marked the institutionalization of communal politics. As Bipan Chandra argues, this divisive colonial policy fragmented the composite nationalism being developed during the independence movement.
Post-1857, Muslims were seen as conspirators against the British, resulting in their economic and political marginalization. The partition of India in 1947, based on religious lines, led to massive displacement, trauma, and a long-standing legacy of mistrust between communities—particularly impacting the social psyche of Indian Muslims.
2. Educational Backwardness
The Sachar Committee Report (2006) revealed glaring educational disparities. The Muslim literacy rate stood at 59.1%, below the national average of 65.1%. Less than 3% of Muslim children reach graduation. This is worsened by poor infrastructure in Muslim-majority areas—shortages of classrooms, trained teachers, drinking water, and toilets—discouraging sustained educational participation.
In recent years, the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER 2022) reaffirmed these trends, showing learning outcomes for Muslim children lagging behind national benchmarks, especially in northern states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. This educational deprivation not only reduces job opportunities but also feeds into cycles of poverty and exclusion.
3. Employment Discrimination and Economic Marginalisation
Muslims are underrepresented in both public and private sectors. According to the Sachar Report, Muslims constitute:
4.9% of Central Government employees,
2.6% of the organised private sector,
Yet make up 14.2% of the population.
The National Sample Survey (NSS 2019) also indicates that Muslim households have a lower average monthly per capita expenditure (MPCE) than SC/ST households. Wage disparities persist across sectors, despite similar qualifications, reflecting systemic bias and limited access to skill development.
Contemporary examples such as the lack of Muslim representation in the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) or police forces, and reports of hiring biases in the tech and finance sectors, reflect institutional exclusion. In metros like Mumbai and Delhi, Muslim candidates often face subtle but firm rejection on religious grounds.
4. Radicalisation and Extremism
As sociologist Imtiaz Ahmad observes, radicalisation among Muslim youth cannot be attributed solely to religious indoctrination. Structural factors like socio-economic exclusion, identity-based discrimination, and state surveillance (e.g., profiling under anti-terror laws like UAPA) contribute significantly to alienation. The misuse of terror-related charges against innocent Muslims—as seen in the Batla House encounter controversy—has intensified distrust in state institutions.
International extremist networks such as ISIS have attempted to recruit Indian Muslims online. However, India's Muslims have shown remarkable resistance to such ideologies. Nonetheless, sporadic incidents like the 2020 Delhi riots, which followed anti-CAA protests, have been exploited by fringe elements to justify surveillance and further communalize Muslim identity.
5. Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims
Contrary to the popular notion of Islam as an egalitarian faith, caste-like hierarchies persist within the community. Sociologist Imtiaz Ahmad has extensively documented Ashraf-Ajlaf-Arzal divisions. Pasmanda Muslims—often artisans, labourers, or converted Dalits—face discrimination from both upper-caste Muslims and the wider society.
These internal inequalities are seldom acknowledged in policy frameworks, despite the Pasmanda Movement's demand for recognition and reservations. The Bihar government’s 2022 caste survey, which identified significant deprivation among Pasmanda Muslims, has renewed calls for intra-Muslim equity.
6. Ghettoization and Housing Discrimination
Following communal riots, Muslims often migrate to segregated areas for safety, leading to urban ghettoization. As noted by V.V. Singh, these ghettos become spaces of both protection and exclusion—shielding residents from violence but cutting them off from economic and social mobility.
Areas like Juhapura in Ahmedabad and Seelampur in Delhi exemplify this. Despite being populous, these areas suffer from inadequate municipal services, poor infrastructure, and lack of access to healthcare and education, further perpetuating marginalisation.
Housing discrimination is rampant. A 2021 survey by Housing and Land Rights Network (HLRN) found that over 30% of Muslims in Indian cities had been denied housing solely due to their religion. This has led to calls for anti-discrimination housing laws, still pending implementation.
7. Islamophobia and Religious Nationalism
Islamophobia—the fear and vilification of Islam and Muslims—has been intensified by rising religious nationalism. Social media platforms are often used to spread misinformation and hate speech. Viral campaigns like “Love Jihad” and “Land Jihad” falsely portray Muslims as conspiratorial threats to Hindu society.
The 2023 Karnataka hijab ban controversy, where Muslim girls were barred from attending classes for wearing hijabs, shows how state policies can be shaped by majoritarian anxieties rather than constitutional secularism. Public rhetoric from political figures has at times fed Islamophobic narratives, weakening inter-community trust.
8. Gender Issues in Muslim Personal Law
The status of Muslim women is often debated through the lens of personal law. Issues like triple talaq (now criminalised), inheritance inequality, and child marriage have drawn criticism. However, such portrayals risk homogenising Muslim women's experiences.
While discriminatory practices do exist, many Muslim women are also leading reformist movements. Activists like Zakia Soman of the Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan (BMMA) have advocated for a Gender-Just Muslim Family Law within the Islamic framework, rejecting both patriarchal interpretations and state-imposed uniformity.
9. Government Measures and the Way Forward
The state has launched several schemes to uplift Muslims:
Pre- and post-matric scholarships
Skill India Mission with targeted Muslim participation
National Minorities Development and Finance Corporation (NMDFC) loans for self-employment
Additionally, digitisation of Waqf properties seeks to ensure better governance of community resources. However, implementation is often slow and poorly monitored. Moreover, the lack of Muslim representation in decision-making bodies hinders these initiatives from addressing grassroots realities.
Challenges Faced by Religious Minorities in India: A Sociological Study of Sikhs and Christians
India, with its rich tapestry of religions, languages, and cultures, presents a unique sociological landscape where religious minorities often navigate a complex web of identity, integration, and inequality. Among these, the Sikh and Christian communities occupy distinct spaces shaped by historical trajectories, regional concentrations, and socio-political dynamics. While both communities have made substantial contributions to India's social and economic fabric, they continue to face specific challenges rooted in both structural and cultural domains.
I. Problems Faced by the Sikh Community
1. Skewed Sex Ratio and Gender Discrimination
The Sikh community, despite its relatively high literacy levels and economic prosperity, grapples with a disproportionately low sex ratio. As per the 2011 Census, the sex ratio among Sikhs in the 0-6 age group stood at 828 girls per 1,000 boys, significantly below the national average and behind most other religious groups. This is paradoxical considering Sikhism’s egalitarian ethos.
Sociological explanations point to entrenched patriarchal norms, the dowry system, and land inheritance practices as core reasons for the continued preference for male children. Ironically, selective family planning and sex-selective abortions are more prevalent in affluent and educated sections, including among Sikhs in Punjab. Despite awareness campaigns, practices like "big fat weddings" and kinship-based pressures reinforce son preference.
Contemporary Example: In 2024, the Punjab Government launched the "Beti Diyan Rakhiye" (Protect the Daughters) campaign after reports showed only marginal improvement in the child sex ratio in affluent districts like Mansa and Bathinda.
2. Separatism and the Shadow of Militancy
The Khalistan Movement, which peaked during the 1980s, sought the creation of a separate Sikh homeland. Rooted in grievances over autonomy, cultural recognition, and political representation, the movement turned violent, with militant groups such as the Babbar Khalsa International and Khalistan Liberation Force engaging in terrorism.
Although largely subdued post-1990s, residual separatist sentiments persist, occasionally reignited by emotive issues such as sacrilege, narcotics, and diaspora influence. The emergence of fringe groups like Waris Punjab De, led by figures like Amritpal Singh, illustrates the periodic resurgence of separatist ideology.
II. Resurgence of the Khalistani Narrative
1. Sacrilege and Religious Emotions
The sanctity of the Guru Granth Sahib, regarded as a living Guru, is central to Sikh spirituality. Incidents of sacrilege (Beadabi) provoke intense public reactions and are often perceived as assaults on Sikh identity.
Contemporary Example: In 2022, mob violence followed an alleged sacrilege incident in Kapurthala, highlighting the volatility associated with religious sentiments. These incidents often provide fertile ground for separatist propaganda.
2. Narco-Terrorism and Drug Menace
Punjab's geographical proximity to Pakistan and its economic vulnerabilities have made it a hub for narco-terrorism. Drug trafficking not only weakens the youth but is also suspected of being a tool for destabilizing the state and funding insurgent groups.
Contemporary Example: The 2023 arrest of drug smugglers with links to Pakistan-based handlers uncovered a nexus involving international drug cartels and Khalistani sympathizers.
3. Religious-Political Nexus
Institutions like the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC) often blur the lines between religion and politics. While meant to manage religious affairs, the SGPC has occasionally glorified Khalistani figures, contributing to identity-based polarization.
Contemporary Example: In 2023, a SGPC event honoring Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale sparked controversy and led to renewed debates on the politicization of religion in Punjab.
4. Foreign Support and Diaspora Influence
The Sikh diaspora, especially in Canada, the UK, and the USA, often romanticizes a nostalgic vision of Sikh sovereignty based on the legacy of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Organizations like Sikhs for Justice (SFJ) promote secessionist campaigns such as "Referendum 2020", leveraging social media and lobbying power.
Contemporary Example: The killing of Khalistani separatist Hardeep Singh Nijjar in Canada in 2023 strained India-Canada relations and brought global attention to the diasporic dimensions of the Khalistan issue.
III. Legacy of Communal Violence
1. Operation Blue Star and Its Fallout
The 1984 Operation Blue Star, aimed at flushing out militants from the Golden Temple, remains a watershed moment in Sikh collective memory. The subsequent assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards triggered the 1984 anti-Sikh riots, where thousands were killed in Delhi and other cities.
Sociological Impact: This led to the formation of a "grievance identity" among Sikhs, a concept developed by sociologists to explain how communities mobilize around collective trauma.
IV. The Drug Problem in Punjab
Drug addiction is a socioeconomic crisis in Punjab, exacerbated by post-Green Revolution stagnation, unemployment, and easy availability of narcotics. The 2018 film Udta Punjab brought this issue into national focus, highlighting its impact on youth, families, and social cohesion.
Government Responses:
Establishment of rehabilitation centers.
Use of technology for drug tracking (e.g., e-Detection Portal).
Collaboration with NGOs like AIIMS-Amritsar’s de-addiction programs.
V. Problems Faced by Christians in India
1. Religious Conversions and Backlash
Christian missionaries have long been accused—often without evidence—of inducing conversions among Dalits and tribal populations through material inducements. The issue is politically sensitive and is often invoked by right-wing groups to assert cultural nationalism.
Contemporary Example: In 2023, Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh saw violent incidents where tribal Christians were attacked under the pretext of alleged forced conversions.
2. Caste Stratification within Christianity
Despite the Christian emphasis on equality, caste-based discrimination persists among Indian Christians. Dalit Christians often face exclusion within church hierarchies and community life.
Sociologist Rowena Robinson argues that the persistence of caste among Christians challenges the claim that conversion alone leads to social equality.
3. Denial of Reservation Benefits
Dalits converting to Christianity or Islam lose their Scheduled Caste status, unlike those who remain in Hinduism, Buddhism, or Sikhism. This creates structural disadvantage, especially in access to education and jobs.
Contemporary Policy Discourse: The Justice Ranganath Misra Commission (2007) recommended extending SC status to Dalit Christians and Muslims, but political consensus has remained elusive.
VI. Government Measures
For Sikhs:
Dialogue and Rehabilitation of former militants.
Promotion of economic development and community engagement in border areas.
Enhanced vigilance against narcotics and cross-border terror networks.
For Christians:
Legal Safeguards: Articles 25-30 of the Constitution protect religious freedom and minority rights.
Monitoring Conversion Laws: Several states have introduced anti-conversion laws, but the Supreme Court continues to uphold the right to propagate religion.
Reservation Debate: Efforts are ongoing to address the reservation anomaly for Dalit converts, though political will remains divided.
Challenges faced by Parsis
Parsis, followers of Zoroastrianism who migrated from Persia to India around the 8th century to escape religious persecution, have played a vital role in India’s industrial, philanthropic, and intellectual history. Despite their rich legacy, the community today faces a demographic crisis. From industrial pioneers like Jamsetji Tata to contemporary icons like legal luminary Fali Nariman and author Rohinton Mistry, Parsis have made remarkable contributions to India's development. Yet, their dwindling numbers threaten the continuity of this unique cultural and religious heritage.
Dwindling Population: A Demographic Challenge
According to the 2011 Census of India, the Parsi population declined by 18% over the preceding decade, falling to just 57,246 individuals. If this trend continues, demographers warn the community could face near extinction within a century. In recognition of their small size and urban concentration, scholars and policymakers have come to describe them as an "urban tribe."
Several interrelated factors contribute to this alarming decline:
Endogamy and Prohibition of Conversion: Traditional norms within the community prohibit conversion and discourage marriage outside the faith. Children of Parsi women who marry non-Parsis are often not accepted as members of the community. This has significantly narrowed the pool of potential marital partners and restricted demographic expansion.
Delayed Marriages and Childlessness: Many Parsis choose to marry late, and a substantial number opt not to marry at all. Fertility rates within the community are alarmingly low—estimated at around 0.8 children per woman, far below the replacement level of 2.1. Childlessness among married couples is also prevalent due to lifestyle choices, age, and fertility issues.
High Levels of Inbreeding: A restricted gene pool has led to rising instances of genetic disorders and fertility problems, further impacting birth rates. Inbreeding has also caused higher morbidity rates among elderly Parsis, burdening community healthcare systems.
Migration: Significant numbers of Parsis have emigrated to countries like Canada, the United States, and Australia in search of education, employment, and a higher quality of life. This diaspora, while successful, often results in assimilation into broader Western cultures, weakening ties with the religious and social practices of the original community.
Government and Community Interventions
Recognizing the urgency of this demographic crisis, the Indian government launched the Jiyo Parsi Scheme in 2013 under the aegis of the Ministry of Minority Affairs. This initiative was designed to arrest the population decline and rejuvenate the community through various support mechanisms:
Medical Support and Counseling: The scheme offers financial aid for fertility treatments such as IVF, as well as counseling for young Parsis on family planning and marriage. It seeks to address both physiological and psychological barriers to childbearing within the community.
Mother and Child Care: Special incentives are provided to support maternal and child health, including hospital care, nutrition, and childcare facilities. The program ensures that economic constraints do not deter families from having children.
Awareness Campaigns: Media outreach, short films, and social media initiatives have been used to break cultural taboos, encourage early marriage, and promote childbearing. Campaigns like “Have Baby. Will Populate” were launched with humor and empathy to shift mindsets within the community.
Despite these efforts, progress has been slow. While the number of Parsi births supported by the scheme has reached over 350 as of 2023, it remains insufficient to reverse the overall demographic trend.
Contemporary Relevance
The plight of the Parsis offers broader sociological insights into how minority communities manage cultural preservation amidst modernity, globalization, and individualism. Similar patterns can be seen in other ethnoreligious groups globally, such as Jews in Europe or Zoroastrians in Iran, where cultural conservatism interacts with demographic vulnerability.
Moreover, debates around inclusion—especially the demand by Parsi women to recognize their children born of interfaith marriages—highlight evolving gender roles and intra-community tensions between tradition and adaptation. Legal battles and community councils like the Bombay Parsi Punchayet continue to grapple with these complex identity questions.
Secularism in India: A Sociological Perspective with Contemporary Examples
Secularism in India represents a unique and complex framework that seeks to balance religious pluralism with the ideals of democracy, equality, and justice. Rooted in India’s historical traditions and formalized through constitutional mechanisms, Indian secularism is distinct from its Western counterpart. While the Western model emphasizes a strict separation between religion and state, Indian secularism is characterized by equal respect for all religions and selective state intervention to ensure social justice.
Historical Evolution of Indian Secularism
India’s secular fabric has deep civilizational roots. Ancient Indian society was home to a mosaic of faiths—Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and later, Islam and Christianity—each of which coexisted despite occasional tensions. The Santam Dhama tradition within Hinduism promoted philosophical tolerance and spiritual pluralism. Emperor Ashoka’s 12th Rock Edict is a striking early instance of secular thought, where he called for the respect of all religious sects and discouraged disparagement of others’ faiths. This marked a state-sponsored ethos of religious coexistence.
During the medieval period, secularism found expression in the policies of Emperor Akbar, who implemented Sulh-e-Kul (peace with all) and initiated Din-e-Illahi, a syncretic faith that underscored the universality of spiritual values. Akbar’s court became a venue for interfaith dialogue, emphasizing tolerance and inclusivity.
Similarly, the Bhakti and Sufi movements played a transformative role in deconstructing rigid religious identities. Saints like Kabir, Guru Nanak, Mirabai, and Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti advocated love, unity, and a rejection of religious orthodoxy. These movements helped lay a foundation for the Indian ethos of Sarva Dharma Sambhava—equal respect for all religions.
Secularism in the Indian Freedom Movement
The Indian national movement further cemented secular values. Leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Swami Dayanand Saraswati undertook social reforms rooted in religious ethics, yet were inclusive in their outreach. Political leaders such as Feroz Shah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Mahatma Gandhi envisioned a plural society where all communities could live with dignity.
Gandhi’s secularism was spiritual rather than legalistic. He saw religion as a means to attain truth and non-violence (ahimsa), not as a source of division. In contrast, Jawaharlal Nehru championed a more Western-style secularism grounded in scientific temper and rationalism. Yet both saw communal harmony as integral to the Indian nation-state.
Constitutional Foundations of Indian Secularism
Post-independence, the Indian Constitution institutionalized secularism through its Preamble and key Articles. Although the term “secular” was explicitly added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, its spirit was present from the beginning. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar emphasized that democracy would be meaningless without a secular state ensuring liberty, equality, and fraternity.
Articles 25 to 28 of the Constitution enshrine religious freedom. Article 25 grants the right to profess, practice, and propagate religion. Article 26 allows religious denominations autonomy in managing religious affairs. Article 27 prevents the state from taxing citizens for religious promotion, and Article 28 restricts religious instruction in state-funded institutions. Together, these ensure that the Indian state neither favors nor suppresses any religion.
The Indian Model of Secularism
Indian secularism is best understood through the lens of sociologists like D.E. Smith and Rizvi. It differs from the Western model by not strictly separating religion from politics. Instead, it maintains a principled distance, where the state can intervene in religion to ensure justice and equity. This model allows for both individual and collective religious rights while ensuring social reforms.
For example, the Supreme Court’s Essential Religious Practices (ERP) doctrine has been used to decide which religious practices are constitutionally protected. This was evident in the Sabarimala verdict (2018), where the Court allowed the entry of women into the temple, and in the Shayara Bano case (2017), which declared instant triple talaq unconstitutional. These decisions illustrate how the Indian state sometimes intervenes in religious domains to uphold constitutional morality.
Contemporary Challenges to Indian Secularism
Despite its constitutional commitment, secularism in India faces serious challenges today. The rise of communalism, political polarization, and religious fundamentalism has undermined the secular ethos. Incidents like the 2020 Delhi riots, attacks on places of worship, and hate speech campaigns reflect the growing influence of divisive politics.
The blurring of lines between religion and the state is also visible in legislative actions such as the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) and debates around the Uniform Civil Code (UCC). While proponents argue that these measures uphold national integrity and gender justice, critics contend that they erode the pluralistic fabric of Indian secularism.
Judicial overreach through the ERP test is another contentious issue. Many argue that the judiciary, by interpreting religious texts and practices, risks imposing a uniform standard that may not align with the diverse religious realities of India. At the same time, anti-conversion laws passed in several states are seen as discriminatory, particularly against religious minorities.
Secularisation vs. Secularism
Secularism should not be confused with secularisation. The latter, as defined by Bryan Wilson (1966), refers to the decline of religious influence in social life. However, in India, secularisation is uneven. While the state adopts secular principles, religion continues to play a dominant role in personal law, politics, and cultural practices.
T.N. Madan critiques the applicability of Western secularism in India, arguing that secularism in India is more of a normative ideal than a social reality. For him, Indian society remains deeply religious, and secularism often functions as a flexible attitude of tolerance rather than a rigid principle.
Intellectual Perspectives on Indian Secularism
Partha Chatterjee offers a more contextualized understanding. He argues that Indian secularism cannot be understood purely through rational, Western lenses. Instead, it must be rooted in respect for personhood, cultural practices, and minority identities. The state must mediate religious claims not through uniform rationality but through a politics of toleration and accommodation.
Ashis Nandy goes further, calling modern secularism a failure in the Indian context. He critiques both the secular state and modern communal organizations, viewing them as products of the same modernist project. For Nandy, the true Indian tradition of religious tolerance lies in pre-modern religiosity, as exemplified by figures like Ashoka, Akbar, and Gandhi. They did not separate religion from politics but used their spiritual beliefs to cultivate inclusivity.
Indian vs. Western Secularism
The Western model of secularism emphasizes a rigid separation between religion and the state. In countries like France, religious symbols such as the hijab are banned in public institutions to preserve secular neutrality. Laws are made without reference to religion, and the state refrains from funding or intervening in religious matters.
In contrast, Indian secularism acknowledges the role of religion in public life and allows state interaction when necessary. For instance, the state funds religious pilgrimages like the Haj subsidy (until it was discontinued in 2018) and oversees the administration of temples through state boards. At the same time, it bans practices deemed regressive, such as triple talaq.
Thus, Indian secularism does not exclude religion from the public sphere but ensures that religious diversity coexists with constitutional values.