Ethnic Conflicts, Communalism, Religious Revivalism
India’s vast ethnic diversity has been a source of both cultural richness and conflict. The country’s multiplicity of ethnic groups, languages, religions, and regional identities has led to complex ethnic tensions and conflicts. Various scholars have analyzed the causes, nature, and management of ethnic conflicts in India, highlighting unique features that distinguish them from conventional ethnic conflicts elsewhere.
D. Muni, in his work Ethnic Conflict Federalism and Democracy in India, identifies two distinctive characteristics of Indian ethnic diversity. First, ethnic conflicts in India do not follow a simple subordinate-dominant pattern; there is no clear hierarchy or dominance of one ethnic group over others uniformly across the country. Second, ethnic groups in India are often geographically scattered and dispersed, without neat alignment between cultural markers and territorial boundaries. This dispersion creates overlapping zones of cooperation and confrontation between ethnic groups across different regions and periods, making ethnic conflicts in India complex and multi-dimensional.
Deepankar Gupta builds on this analysis by emphasizing the connection between ethnic movements and the nation-state, particularly over issues of territory and sovereignty. According to Gupta, ethnic mobilization in India often challenges the loyalty of ethnic groups to the central state, as groups assert distinct ethnic identities that question the legitimacy and authority of the state. This creates tensions between ethnic communities and the Indian nation-state, especially when ethnic demands involve territorial claims or autonomy.
Ethnicity in India is also marked by fluidity and localization. Individuals and groups can shift their ethnic identities depending on the political and social context, moving between linguistic, regional, or religious identities as circumstances change. This fluidity complicates the nature of ethnic conflicts, as identity becomes adaptable rather than fixed. Furthermore, many ethnic movements in India are localized, confined to specific regions where ethnic identities are strongest. For example, ethnic conflicts remain concentrated in Northeast India, where diverse tribal groups have long demanded autonomy. Similarly, Punjab witnessed ethnic conflict primarily between Sikh and Hindu communities during the Khalistan movement. The creation of states such as Nagaland in 1963 was itself a response to ethnic demands, but also led to further assertions of ethnic identity and demands for autonomy.
James Manor highlights how ethnic conflicts manifest through regional movements that arise from perceived injustices. The Telangana movement for a separate state was driven by demands for fairness and development. In Punjab, ethnic identity and conflict evolved from linguistic autonomy demands in the 1960s to religious-based separatism in the 1980s. Such examples show how ethnic conflicts are often rooted in demands for recognition, justice, and political power.
Ethnic conflicts in India take many forms. Autonomy movements seek greater self-governance within the Indian federation, as seen in Kashmir and parts of the Northeast. Secessionist movements, such as the demand for Khalistan by some Sikh groups or Nagalim by Naga groups, seek complete independence. Self-determination and insurgency movements often involve armed resistance, particularly in volatile regions like Northeast India and Kashmir. The creation of Haryana from Punjab, and Nagaland’s statehood, are examples of how ethnic demands have reshaped India’s political map, though not always resolving underlying tensions.
Ethnic conflicts in India span multiple dimensions. Linguistic identities have driven the creation of states such as Andhra Pradesh and the bifurcation of Bombay State into Maharashtra and Gujarat. Religious identities have sparked conflicts between Hindus and Muslims, notably in Ayodhya, and between Hindus and Sikhs in Punjab. Regional identities fuel movements in Jammu and Kashmir and the Northeast, while tribal identities underpin movements and violent clashes in Jharkhand, Manipur, and other tribal regions, including the Kuki-Naga tribal conflict.
Managing ethnic conflicts in India has involved a combination of institutional and political strategies. The creation of linguistic states and granting autonomy under constitutional provisions like the Sixth Schedule have helped accommodate ethnic demands. India’s flexible federal system allows states significant autonomy, which helps diffuse tensions by addressing regional aspirations. Civil society organizations have played an important role in challenging majority dominance and promoting pluralism, especially in resisting Hindu nationalist assertions that threaten minority ethnic groups. Lastly, India’s democratic processes and electoral politics provide a platform for ethnic groups to voice their grievances and participate in governance, facilitating conflict resolution through dialogue, negotiation, and composite nationalism.
In conclusion, ethnic conflicts in India are shaped by the country’s unique ethnic diversity, fluid identities, and the complex interplay between local, regional, and national politics. While these conflicts pose significant challenges, India’s federal structure, democratic institutions, and evolving civil society continue to offer avenues for managing ethnic tensions and promoting peaceful coexistence.