Suicide
Durkheim in his Le Suicide(1897), defined suicide as, ”Suicide is any case of death, caused by directly or indirectly, positive or negative action of victim himself, which he knows will produce this result”. Positive actions are those actions taken by individual to end one’s life like consuming poison and negative action are in the form of inaction which causes death for example remaining inside a burning house.
Durkheim's study of suicide, as Merton suggests, exemplifies the integration of theory and research in sociology. Durkheim intended his work not only to elucidate suicide as a social problem but also to showcase his new sociological method. He chose suicide because it provided concrete data and aimed to demonstrate sociology's capacity to explain even seemingly individualistic acts.
Durkheim's focus wasn't on individual motivations for suicide, which he left to psychologists, but rather on explaining differences in suicide rates between groups. He argued that only social facts could account for such variations, dismissing psychological or biological factors as the primary cause.
He took data from police records from various regions of Europe at different time period and established that suicide is a social phenomenon and not an individual or psychological phenomenon. He rejected existing explanation which linked suicide to factors like stress and modernity. To establish suicide as a social fact, he gave the following arguments in his support:
1. He used data to show that there is no positive relation between the rate of suicide and different non-social factors like insanity, alcohol, race etc.
2. He explained sociological causes of suicide by correlating suicide rates with various social factor
3. He proved with the help of statistical data that certain rate of suicide is normal in society
After detailed research, he concluded that:
1. Males have greater suicidal tendencies as compared to females.
2. Rate of suicide is found more among the bachelors as marriage protects individuals against suicide by integrating individuals into stable social relations.
3. Underdeveloped countries have less rate of suicide than in case of developed countries.
4. On the basis of religion, protestants have higher suicide rates than Catholics. Durkheim reasoned that since protestant religion gives its members more freedom of interpretation of religion and free inquiry, they are less integrated into the church than Catholics
According to him, though individual may have some psychological pre-disposition, but it is impact of suicidogenic impulses which lead to actual suicide. On the basis of his analysis, he identified two types of bonds that integrate individuals with society:
Forces of integration
Various degrees of these forces are associated with two types of suicide. As a result of over-integration and low integration, two types pf suicides may happen in society:
Altruistic Suicide
Definition: Altruistic suicide occurs when individuals are overly integrated into their society, to the extent that they are willing to sacrifice their own lives for the benefit or perceived benefit of the group.
Why It Happens:
1. Over-Integration with Society: Individuals feel a strong connection and duty to their community or group, sometimes valuing the group's needs over their own lives.
2. High Degree of Mechanical Solidarity: In traditional societies, people often have strong bonds and a sense of belonging with their group, leading to a willingness to die for the group’s cause.
Examples:
1. Sati in India: This was a historical practice where a widow would self-immolate on her husband's funeral pyre. The act was seen as the ultimate display of loyalty and honor to her deceased husband and his family.
2. Soldiers in War: Soldiers who sacrifice their lives in battle for their country or comrades can be considered as committing altruistic suicide. They are deeply integrated into their military units and feel a profound sense of duty and honor.
3. Japanese Kamikaze Pilots: During World War II, these pilots undertook suicide missions, crashing their planes into enemy targets. Their actions were driven by a strong sense of loyalty and sacrifice for their country.
4. 9/11 Terrorist Attack: The terrorists involved in the 9/11 attacks were willing to die for what they believed was a greater cause, influenced by strong ideological and group integration.
5. Cultural Rituals: In certain traditional societies, individuals might participate in rituals that involve self-sacrifice to honor their gods or ancestors, reflecting a deep sense of belonging and duty to their cultural group.
Characteristics:
Sense of Duty: Individuals feel a profound sense of duty to their group or society.
Self-Sacrifice: They are willing to give up their lives for what they perceive as the greater good of their group or cause.
Durkheim’s View:
Émile Durkheim identified altruistic suicide as occurring in societies where individuals are so closely bonded with their group that they are willing to die for it. This type of suicide is more common in traditional societies with strong communal ties and high levels of mechanical solidarity.
Modern Relevance:
While altruistic suicide is more characteristic of traditional societies, it can still be observed in modern contexts where individuals are highly integrated into specific groups or causes. Examples include military units, religious cults, and extremist groups.
Summary:
Altruistic suicide occurs when individuals are overly integrated into their society, leading them to sacrifice their lives for the perceived benefit of the group. Examples include historical practices like sati, soldiers dying in battle, kamikaze pilots, and terrorists committing acts of suicide for a cause. Durkheim noted that such suicides are more common in traditional societies with strong communal ties.
Egoistic Suicide
Definition: Egoistic suicide occurs when individuals have low integration with society, leading to feelings of alienation and isolation. They do not feel connected to social groups, which can result in a sense of not belonging or not being valued by society.
Why It Happens:
1. Low Social Integration: Individuals lack strong social bonds and connections with their community or society.
2. Feelings of Alienation: People feel disconnected, isolated, and unsupported by their social environment.
Examples:
1. Suicide Due to Failure: An individual who feels isolated and unsupported may commit suicide after experiencing significant failure, as they don't feel they have a network to help them cope.
2. Suicide Due to Success: Paradoxically, even successful individuals might feel isolated if they lack meaningful social connections, leading to feelings of emptiness and subsequent suicide.
3. Suicide Due to Depression: People suffering from depression often feel a profound sense of isolation and disconnection from society, contributing to egoistic suicide.
4. Isolated Student: A student who has moved to a new city for college might feel isolated without a strong social network. If they struggle with academic pressure and feel they have no one to turn to, they might experience feelings of despair leading to egoistic suicide.
5. Retired Elderly: An elderly person who has retired and lost touch with their social network might feel isolated and disconnected. The lack of a sense of purpose and community can lead to feelings of depression and thoughts of suicide.
Characteristics:
Weak Social Bonds: Individuals do not feel a sense of belonging to any group or community.
Personal Alienation: They feel that society does not value them and they do not value society.
Emotional Distress: Feelings of incurable weariness and deep depression are common.
Durkheim’s View:
Émile Durkheim argued that egoistic suicide results from weak social ties. He noted that societies with strong social values and close-knit communities have lower rates of egoistic suicides. For example, he observed that Protestant Christians had higher rates of egoistic suicide compared to Catholics, as Protestantism promotes more individual freedom and less community integration.
Durkheim’s Observations:
Protestant vs. Catholic: Protestants had higher rates of egoistic suicide due to their emphasis on individualism, whereas Catholics, with their stronger community bonds, had lower rates.
War Times: During times of war, the rates of egoistic suicide tend to drop because individuals feel a stronger sense of unity and purpose in the face of a common external threat.
Contrast with Altruistic Suicide:
Egoistic Suicide: Stems from low integration, leading to feelings of isolation and depression.
Altruistic Suicide: Stems from over-integration, leading individuals to sacrifice themselves for the group's perceived benefit.
Summary:
Egoistic suicide occurs when individuals feel disconnected and alienated from society due to weak social bonds. Examples include suicides resulting from failure, success, and depression. Societies with strong communal values and close-knit communities have lower rates of egoistic suicide. Durkheim highlighted that Protestants have higher rates of egoistic suicide than Catholics due to the former's emphasis on individualism. In contrast, during times of war, individuals feel more integrated, leading to lower rates of egoistic suicide.
Forces of Regulation
It implies control of individuals by society. There can be two types of suicides caused by regulation – due to over regulation and under regulation.
Anomic Suicide
Definition: Anomic suicide happens when there is a breakdown in the social norms and values that guide people's lives. This breakdown leads to feelings of confusion, despair, and lack of purpose.
Why It Happens:
1. Loss of Social Regulation: When society suddenly changes (like during an economic boom or bust), the usual rules and expectations can disappear.
2. Unlimited or Confused Desires: Without clear rules, people might not know how to act or what to aim for, leading to feelings of being lost or overwhelmed.
Types of Anomic Suicide:
1. Acute Anomic Suicide: This occurs when there is a sudden and temporary disruption in social regulations. For example, during a rapid economic crisis, traditional institutions like banks and workplaces might not be able to provide stability and support.
2. Chronic Anomic Suicide: This happens when there is a long-term breakdown of social norms and regulations without new ones being established. For instance, in a society that has experienced prolonged war or dictatorship, old norms might be destroyed, and new ones might not be created, leading to ongoing confusion and despair.
Challenges to the Concept:
Merton's Argument: Sociologist Robert Merton argues that such economic conditions are not just caused by external events. Instead, they happen when there is a gap between societal goals (like wealth and success) and the means available to achieve those goals. This gap can also lead to feelings of frustration and anomie, contributing to anomic suicides.
Example:
1. Economic Boom: If everyone suddenly becomes very wealthy, traditional values about hard work and modesty might disappear. People might not know how to handle their newfound wealth, leading to reckless behavior or feeling lost, potentially resulting in anomic suicide.
2. Economic Bust: Conversely, if a severe recession hits and many people become unemployed, they might lose their sense of purpose and direction, leading to feelings of hopelessness and increased rates of anomic suicide.
In summary, anomic suicide happens when sudden changes in society disrupt the usual norms and values, leaving people feeling lost and without guidance.
Fatalistic Suicide
Definition: Fatalistic suicide happens when individuals feel excessively controlled and oppressed by society, leading to feelings of suffocation, hopelessness, and powerlessness.
Why It Happens:
1. Excessive Social Control: When society exerts too much control over individuals' lives, they can feel trapped and unable to escape their circumstances.
2. Oppressive Discipline: Constant and harsh regulation of individuals' actions and desires can lead to a sense of hopelessness.
Characteristics:
Blocked Futures: Individuals see no hope or possibility for change in their situation.
Choked Passions: Their desires and ambitions are suppressed by the rigid and oppressive rules of society.
Example:
1. Prisoner: A prisoner with a life sentence, subjected to strict and harsh conditions, may feel that their future is entirely blocked and that they have no control over their life. This can lead to feelings of extreme hopelessness and potentially to fatalistic suicide.
2. Strict Religious Community: In a community with extremely rigid and oppressive religious rules, an individual might feel that they have no freedom to live their life as they wish. The constant pressure to conform to strict norms can lead to a sense of suffocation and, in severe cases, to fatalistic suicide.
Durkheim’s View:
Émile Durkheim,, stated that fatalistic suicides occur when people are trapped in oppressive situations where they see no way out. He described it as a situation where the future appears hopelessly blocked, and passions are violently choked by oppressive discipline.
Modern Relevance:
Durkheim noted that fatalistic suicides are rare in modern societies because such extreme levels of control and oppression are less common today. Modern societies tend to have more personal freedoms and fewer rigid controls, reducing the likelihood of fatalistic suicide.
Summary:
Fatalistic suicide is the result of excessive control and oppression by society, leading individuals to feel hopeless and powerless. Examples include slaves, prisoners, or people living in extremely oppressive conditions. Durkheim highlighted that such suicides are rare in modern times due to the greater personal freedoms present in contemporary societies.
While Durkheim gave primacy to external factors, but at the same time, he acknowledged that there may be a secondary role of psychological factor too, but the real cause of suicide is social. He concluded that rates of suicide are fairly consistent in different societies, making it a social phenomenon, linked with the nature of particular society. A particular rate is normal in society as it highlights the problem of integration and regulation. Once suicide is committed, the whole society works to reinforce appropriate levels of integration and regulation. If suicide rate increases beyond a certain limit, it becomes pathological or abnormal.
Criticism
J M Atkinson in his Discovering Suicide, 1978 contended that quality of statistics used by Durkheim is questionable. For example, there is evidence suggest that religious censure of suicide is more in Catholics than among Protestants. His data has poor reliability as it was taken from police stations which did not include unreported suicides. He also didn’t include attempted suicides.
David Freedman, in his The Ecological Fallacy, 2002 accused him of committing ecological fallacy as he tried to generalize an apparent personal phenomenon.