Science, scientific method, and critique

Science is often defined as a systematized body of knowledge based on empirical data and verifiable observations. It seeks to generate law-like generalizations that explain and predict phenomena. Scientific knowledge is not derived from speculation but from observation of reality through the senses. The essence of science lies in organizing facts into meaningful patterns using systematic procedures. This is achieved through what is known as the scientific method—a structured approach that underpins the investigation of any phenomenon, including the study of human society.

The scientific method is a sequence of logical steps beginning with observation. This initial step involves noticing an event or phenomenon that provokes intellectual curiosity. Following observation is the stage of definition and classification, where the observed phenomena are clearly described and categorized. Next is the formulation of a hypothesis—an assumption or educated guess that attempts to explain the observed phenomenon. This is followed by theory generation, where a more comprehensive explanation is developed. To test the hypothesis or theory, a research design is created, which lays out how data will be collected and analyzed. Once data collection occurs through various tools and techniques, the data is thoroughly analyzed to draw conclusions. The final step involves evaluating the theory or hypothesis based on the findings and determining its validity.

The natural and physical sciences, such as physics and chemistry, rely heavily on measurement and quantification. These methods bring precision and enable accurate comparisons, making the outcomes replicable. Early sociologists, inspired by the success of these sciences, aimed to position sociology within the realm of positive sciences. Herbert Spencer, for instance, viewed society as analogous to a biological organism and advocated using the methods of biology to understand society. Emile Durkheim, a key proponent of sociology as a positive science, introduced the concept of "social facts"—aspects of social life that can be studied objectively. He believed these social facts could be observed, classified, and explained using methods akin to those of the natural sciences. Sociologists such as Radcliffe-Brown, Malinowski, Parsons, and scholars from the Chicago School upheld this scientific orientation in their work.

Scientific research in sociology involves multiple types of inquiries. Empirical research, based on direct interaction and observation, is widely used. Library and historical research help investigate the functioning of past social systems, while social research focuses on human behavior and interactions. Scientific social research, as defined by Singleton and Straits, is the process of formulating and seeking answers to questions about the social world. For example, sociologists may investigate why domestic violence occurs, what causes drug abuse, or what the consequences of population explosion are. Common themes of inquiry include rural poverty, urban slums, youth crime, political corruption, and environmental degradation.

The goal of scientific sociological research is to produce systematic, reliable knowledge about social life. It studies a wide range of subjects including social behavior, interpersonal relations, social groups such as castes and tribes, social organizations like religious or business institutions, and larger systems and structures that define society. The scientific method, as outlined by Theodorson and Theodorson, builds knowledge through observation, experimentation, generalization, and verification. It emphasizes empirical evidence—information derived from the senses and capable of being verified by others.

Manheim highlighted that scientific research is characterized by objectivity (free from bias), accuracy (truthful representation of reality), and systematization (logical organization of information). For a statement to be considered scientifically valid, it must be empirically verifiable. Isolated or idiosyncratic observations are not accepted as scientific facts unless they can be replicated and confirmed by multiple studies.

Scientific knowledge is cumulative. It does not merely collect random facts but organizes them into coherent theories. Inductive methods involve deriving general principles from specific facts, while deductive methods test general theories through specific observations. Horton and Hunt further elaborated on the essential characteristics of scientific research. These include verifiable evidence, accuracy, precision, systematization, objectivity, proper recording of data, control of variables, and thorough training of investigators. Each of these elements ensures the reliability and validity of scientific findings.

The scientific process involves a series of structured steps. According to Theodorson and Theodorson, it begins with defining the problem, creating a theoretical framework, formulating hypotheses, designing procedures, collecting data, analyzing data, and relating the results back to theory. Kenneth D. Bailey describes similar stages—defining the research problem, designing the study, collecting and analyzing data, and interpreting the results. Horton and Hunt emphasize reviewing literature, planning the research design, and replicating studies to ensure consistent and accurate findings.

Scientific research is crucial for informed decision-making. It reduces uncertainty, supports the development of new strategies, aids in future planning, and identifies social trends. However, researchers must also assess when scientific inquiry is inappropriate—particularly when data is unavailable, time or funding is limited, or no actionable decisions can be derived from the results.

Despite its strengths, the application of scientific methods in sociology is not without criticism. One of the primary critiques is the problem of experimentation. In natural sciences, controlled experiments are key to establishing causal relationships. But in sociology, controlling human behavior in laboratory settings is not only impractical but ethically problematic. However, this limitation is not unique to sociology; even astronomy cannot perform experiments in the traditional sense, yet it remains a science.

Another challenge is the problem of quantification. Unlike physical phenomena, many sociological aspects—such as emotions, values, and cultural norms—are difficult to quantify without losing their complexity. This also leads to difficulties in generalization. Human behavior is volitional and context-specific, making it hard to establish universal laws. Sociologists often rely on statistical correlations, which reveal trends but not definitive causal links.

Objectivity presents yet another challenge. While scientific research demands impartiality, sociologists are part of the society they study and cannot completely detach themselves from personal biases or cultural influences. These subjective factors may influence the choice of research topic, methodology, or interpretation of findings. Nonetheless, by being aware of these biases and transparently reporting them, sociologists can still strive for meaningful objectivity.

In conclusion, sociology aspires to the standards of scientific inquiry while acknowledging the inherent complexities of its subject matter—human beings and society. It adapts scientific methods to suit the nature of its inquiry, balancing empirical rigor with interpretative depth. Although it may not meet all the criteria of a “positive science” in the same way as physics or chemistry, sociology continues to build credible, systematic knowledge about the social world. Its methodological diversity and openness to critique only strengthen its role as a reflective and evolving discipline in the scientific study of human behavior.