Reference Groups
CONCEPT OF REFERENCE GROUP
Living in Groups:
1. Social Beings:
- Human beings live in groups, forming networks of relationships.
- Relationships within groups guide behaviour and establish identity.
2. Example of Students:
- Students interact with peers, shaping behaviour and expectations.
- Membership in the student group stabilizes the identity as a student.
3. Family as Primary Group:
- Family relationships significantly shape behaviour and expectations.
- Individuals imagine themselves in a series of relationships within the family.
Concept of Reference Groups:
1. Definition:
- A reference group is one to which individuals refer for evaluating their achievements, role performance, aspirations, and ambitions.
- Membership groups are often reference groups, providing standards for behaviour and self-assessment.
2. Non-Membership Groups:
- Non-membership groups, those to which individuals do not belong, can also act as reference groups.
- Exposure to and comparison with non-membership groups influence aspirations and feelings of deprivation.
Examples and Implications:
1. Student vs. Cricketer Example:
- A student, burdened with studies, compares themselves to young cricketers who enjoy fame and wealth.
- The success of cricketers makes the student feel deprived and inspires them to aspire for a similar lifestyle.
- The cricketers act as a reference group, influencing the student's behavior and aspirations.
2. Human Perspective:
- Individuals view themselves not only through the eyes of their group members but also through the perspectives of those in other groups.
- This dual perspective shapes self-evaluation and goal-setting.
Robert Merton's Theory of Reference Groups:
1. Theory Evolution:
- Merton's theory is elaborated in his book "Social Theory and Social Structure" (1949).
- It highlights the importance of both membership and non-membership groups in influencing individual behaviour and self-perception.
2. Complexity of Social Life:
- Life's mobility and exposure to various groups complicate self-evaluation.
- Understanding reference groups helps explain why individuals aspire to different lifestyles and feel varying levels of satisfaction or deprivation.
Conclusion:
- Significance of Reference Groups:
- Reference groups, both membership and non-membership, play a crucial role in shaping behaviour, aspirations, and self-perception.
- Merton's theory provides insights into the complex ways individuals evaluate themselves and their achievements within a social context.
Concept of Relative Deprivation
Relative Deprivation and Reference Groups:
1. Connection to Reference Groups:
- Merton's concept of relative deprivation is closely linked to his understanding of reference groups and their behaviour.
- Reference groups are pivotal in evaluating one’s own situation and performance.
2. Study of The American Soldier:
- Merton’s examination of relative deprivation draws on findings from "The American Soldier" (1949).
- This work explored how American soldiers evaluated their roles, achievements, and sacrifices.
Key Findings and Examples:
1. Married vs. Unmarried Soldiers:
- Married soldiers felt greater sacrifices compared to their unmarried counterparts.
- They perceived deprivation of freedom and responsibilities that unmarried soldiers did not have.
2. Comparison with Civilians:
- Married soldiers felt deprived when comparing themselves to civilian married friends.
- Civilians could enjoy family life, while soldiers could not, highlighting their sense of deprivation.
3. Overseas Soldiers:
- Soldiers stationed overseas felt more deprived compared to those still at home.
- Overseas service meant a greater separation from home and familiar amenities.
Illustrative Example:
1. Indian Student in the U.S.:
- An Indian student at a prestigious U.S. university might initially feel happy due to better academic resources.
- However, if the student values family life and compares their situation with friends in India, feelings of deprivation can arise.
- The absence of close family ties and home life makes the student feel deprived despite academic advantages.
Implications of Relative Deprivation:
1. Perception of Happiness and Deprivation:
- Happiness and deprivation are not absolute; they depend on comparative evaluations.
- Individuals assess their situations relative to others, influencing their sense of satisfaction or deprivation.
2. Role of Reference Groups in Self-Evaluation:
- Reference groups, whether membership or non-membership, play a crucial role in how people evaluate their circumstances.
- These comparisons drive feelings of restlessness and the pursuit of change and mobility.
Conclusion:
Understanding Relative Deprivation:
- Merton’s concept of relative deprivation emphasizes the importance of reference groups in shaping perceptions of one’s situation.
- By comparing themselves to others, individuals continually evaluate their lot, which influences their sense of satisfaction or deprivation.
- This ongoing comparison and search for better circumstances explain much of human restlessness and the drive for mobility and change.
Concept of Group and Group Membership
Characteristics of a Group:
1. Frequency of Interaction:
- Groups consist of individuals who frequently interact with one another.
- The sociological concept of a group emphasizes ongoing interaction among members.
2. Self-Identification as Members:
- Group members define themselves as part of the group and adhere to patterned expectations or forms of interaction.
- They feel morally bound by the expectations set by the group and its members.
3. Recognition by Others:
- Members of the group are recognized as such by both fellow members and non-members.
- The group identity is acknowledged externally, contributing to a sense of belonging.
Distinction from Collectivities and Social Categories:
1. Collectivities:
- All groups are collectivities, but not all collectivities are groups.
- Collectivities lacking frequent interaction among members are not considered groups.
- For example, a nation is a collectivity containing groups and sub-groups, but not every member of a nation interacts with each other.
2. Social Categories:
- Social categories consist of aggregates of social statuses.
- Occupants of social categories may share common characteristics like sex, age, marital status, or income.
- However, they may not necessarily interact socially.
Role of Membership Groups:
1. Shaping Behaviour:
- Membership groups have a significant impact on individuals' day-to-day behavior.
- Group members are conscious of their identities within the group and adhere to group norms.
2. Awareness of Norms:
- Group members are aware of the expectations set by the group and follow them conscientiously.
- Group norms hold moral significance for members, guiding their behavior and interactions.
Conclusion:
- Essential Features of Groups:
- Groups are characterized by frequent interaction among members, self-identification as group members, and recognition by others.
- Unlike collectivities or social categories, membership groups play a pivotal role in shaping individuals' behaviour and identities, with group norms holding moral significance.
Concept of Non-Membership
Merton's Insight:
- While individuals naturally conform to their own groups, the study of reference groups becomes fascinating because people often orient themselves to groups other than their own in shaping behaviour and evaluations.
Categories of Non-Membership:
1. Aspiration for Membership:
- Some non-members aspire to belong to the group they currently don't belong to.
- They admire the group and desire to share its experiences and lifestyle.
2. Indifference towards Affiliation:
- Other non-members may feel indifferent towards joining the group.
- They are content with their current existence and do not seek membership in the group.
3. Motivation to Remain Unaffiliated:
- Certain non-members actively choose to remain unaffiliated with the group.
- They may hold negative attitudes towards the group and wish to maintain their separation.
Illustrative Example:
- Consider a scenario where a person's father owns a factory, making them a non-member to the workers' group.
1. Aspiration for Membership:
- If the person feels deeply sensitive and believes in the working class's ability to create a just world, they may aspire to belong to the workers' group, viewing it as a positive reference group.
2. Indifference towards Affiliation:
- If the person is content with their current life and doesn't see the workers' group impacting them, they may remain indifferent and non-committal to affiliation.
3. Motivation to Remain Unaffiliated:
- If the person holds negative stereotypes about the workers and actively seeks to distance themselves, viewing the workers as unintelligent or uncultured, they consider the workers a negative reference group.
Conclusion:
- Merton's analysis highlights the complexity of non-membership dynamics and the varying attitudes individuals hold towards groups they do not belong to.
- Understanding these dynamics sheds light on how individuals shape their behavior and evaluations in relation to both membership and non-membership groups.
Anticipatory Socialisation
Understanding Anticipatory Socialization:
- Anticipatory socialization involves preparing oneself for a group to which an individual aspires but does not currently belong.
- It entails adopting the values, behaviours, and lifestyles of a non-membership reference group.
Functional and Dysfunctional Consequences:
1. Functional Consequences:
- Anticipatory socialization aids an individual's transition into the desired group.
- It facilitates adjustment after becoming part of the group.
2. Dysfunctional Consequences:
- In a closed social system, anticipatory socialization may lead to disappointment and marginalization if entry into the desired group is impossible.
- Imitating the values of a non-membership group may result in the individual being disliked by their own group, leading to feelings of being a 'marginal man.'
Example:
- Consider a village boy aspiring to join Doon School, a prestigious institution.
- Through anticipatory socialization, he adopts the 'smartness' and lifestyle of Doon School boys.
- If he successfully enters Doon School, anticipatory socialization aids in his adjustment to the new environment.
Functionality in Open vs. Closed Systems:
- Open Social Structure:
- Anticipatory socialization is functional in relatively open social structures that allow for mobility.
- It prepares individuals for potential upward mobility and eases their adjustment to new roles.
- Closed Social Structure:
- In closed systems with limited mobility, anticipatory socialization may be dysfunctional.
- The individual may be unable to join the desired group, leading to disappointment and marginalization.
- Imitating non-membership groups' values may result in social rejection within their own group.
Comparison and Discontentment:
- Closed System:
- In closed systems, individuals are less likely to choose non-membership groups as reference groups.
- Despite potential objective disadvantages, individuals may feel less deprived due to a lack of comparison with more privileged groups.
- Open System:
- In open systems, individuals continually compare their circumstances with relatively better-off non-membership groups.
- This perpetual comparison may lead to unhappiness and discontentment, even if objectively better off than others within their own group.
Conclusion:
- Merton's analysis underscores the nuanced dynamics of anticipatory socialization, emphasizing its functionality in open social structures and potential dysfunctionality in closed systems.
- It highlights the importance of social mobility and the impact of reference groups on individual perceptions of happiness and discontentment within society.
Positive and Negative Reference Groups
Positive Reference Group:
- A positive reference group is one that an individual likes and takes seriously to shape behaviour and evaluate achievements.
- Individuals assimilate the norms and standards of this group, using them as a basis for self-appraisal.
Negative Reference Group:
- A negative reference group is one that an individual dislikes and rejects.
- Instead of accepting its norms, individuals form counter-norms in opposition to this group.
Characteristics:
- Positive Type:
- Involves motivated assimilation of the group's norms for self-appraisal.
- Individuals actively adopt the standards of the positive reference group.
- Negative Type:
- Involves motivated rejection of the group's norms, leading to the formation of counter-norms.
- Individuals oppose the norms of the negative reference group, creating their own standards.
Example:
Colonized vs. Colonizers
- Positive Reference Group:
- Some colonized individuals may admire the colonizers' success and emulate their lifestyle, language, and habits.
- They view the colonizers as a positive reference group, assimilating their norms for self-improvement.
- Negative Reference Group:
- Others may resent the colonizers for their exploitation, arrogance, and brutality.
- Instead of adopting their norms, they reject them and form counter-norms to distance themselves from the colonizers.
- The colonizers serve as a negative reference group for these individuals.
Conclusion:
- Reference groups can be categorized into positive and negative types based on individuals' attitudes towards them.
- Positive reference groups influence individuals through assimilation of norms, while negative reference groups provoke individuals to reject norms and form counter-norms.
DETERMINANTS OF REFERENCE GROUP
Reference Individuals
When individuals choose reference groups, they also select reference individuals, drawn to their charisma, status, and glamour. While reference groups may not necessarily appeal to everyone, certain individuals within those groups can capture attention and admiration. For example, while you may not consider cricketers as a reference group, a legendary figure like Sachin Tendulkar can become a reference individual for many.
Reference Individual vs. Role Model:
1. Scope of Identification:
- The concept of a reference individual extends beyond that of a role model. While a role model is typically associated with specific roles or achievements, a reference individual encompasses a broader identification with various aspects of their behavior and values across multiple roles.
2. Behaviour and Values Approximation:
- Individuals who identify with a reference individual seek to approximate not only their professional success but also their behaviour, values, and lifestyle choices across different roles.
3. Encouragement from Media:
- Biographers, editors of fan magazines, and gossip columnists often play a role in encouraging individuals to choose reference individuals. Coverage of celebrities' personal lives and affairs reinforces their status as reference individuals.
Influence of Media:
Glossy magazines often feature extensive coverage not only of celebrities' professional endeavours but also of their personal lives. This coverage reinforces the idea that individuals who choose celebrities as reference individuals tend to emulate various aspects of their lives, from hairstyles to food habits.
In essence, the selection of reference individuals goes beyond mere admiration for specific achievements or roles; it involves a comprehensive identification with various aspects of their behaviour, values, and lifestyle choices across different roles. This phenomenon is further fuelled by media coverage that emphasizes celebrities' personal lives, encouraging individuals to emulate their chosen reference individuals in various facets of life.
Selection of Reference Groups among Membership Groups
In navigating the multitude of membership groups to which individuals belong, not all groups hold equal importance in shaping behaviour or evaluating achievements. Merton suggests that individuals selectively choose certain groups as reference groups based on various factors. Understanding the different types of membership groups can shed light on this selection process:
Properties of Membership Groups:
1. Degree of Membership Definition:
- Groups vary in the clarity of membership boundaries, ranging from informal groups with vague boundaries to those with formalized admission processes.
2. Degree of Member Engagement:
- Groups differ in the level of involvement and participation they encourage among members.
3. Expected Duration of Group:
- Some groups are temporary, while others are enduring, such as kinship or caste groups, influencing their likelihood of being chosen as reference groups.
4. Open or Closed Character:
- Groups may be open to new members or have restricted membership, affecting their accessibility as reference groups.
5. Degree of Social Differentiation:
- Groups vary in the level of social diversity among their members.
6. Degree of Conformity to Group Norms:
- The extent to which members are expected to adhere to group norms differs among groups.
Selection Criteria for Reference Groups:
- Individuals often choose reference groups based on factors such as the depth of engagement with the group, the expected duration of group membership, and the group's significance in shaping their lives.
- For major life decisions, individuals are more likely to turn to reference groups with which they have a deeper engagement and longer-lasting membership, such as family or kinship groups.
- Temporary groups, like undergraduate classes, are less likely to be chosen as reference groups compared to enduring groups like caste or kinship associations.
- Cultural and traditional factors also influence the selection of reference groups, as seen in preferences for marrying within one's caste or kinship group.
Understanding the properties of membership groups and considering factors such as engagement level and duration of membership can provide insights into why certain groups are chosen as reference groups over others.
Selection of Non-membership Groups
Understanding why individuals choose non-membership groups as their reference groups sheds light on societal dynamics. Merton outlines three primary factors influencing this selection process:
1. Prestige and Power:
- Individuals often select reference groups based on the capacity of certain groups to confer prestige within the societal structure.
- Groups with greater power and prestige, such as IAS Officers in India, often become reference groups for individuals seeking status or recognition.
- Non-membership groups lacking power or prestige are less likely to be chosen as reference groups.
2. Motivation of "Isolates":
- Individuals who feel isolated within their own groups, due to sensitivity, rebelliousness, or a strong desire for mobility, are more inclined to adopt the values of non-membership groups.
- These "isolates" may reject the norms of their own group and seek alignment with non-membership groups that resonate with their aspirations.
- For example, a disillusioned member of the elite may adopt the political orientation of a less powerful class.
3. Social Mobility:
- Societies with a high rate of social mobility tend to foster widespread orientation to non-membership groups as reference groups.
- In open systems where social mobility is prevalent, individuals become aware of groups beyond their own and are motivated to continually alter their positions.
- The fluidity of social mobility encourages individuals to aspire to the values and lifestyles of non-membership groups in pursuit of upward mobility.
Understanding these factors helps elucidate why individuals gravitate towards non-membership groups as reference points in shaping their behaviour and aspirations within society.
Variation in Reference Groups for Differing Values and Norms
Choosing a reference group is a multifaceted process influenced by various factors and personal inclinations. Here are some key points to consider:
1. Ideological Alignment:
- Individuals may select a reference group based on ideological affinity. For example, one may admire the dedication and politico-economic ideals of the Gandhians, leading them to choose Gandhians as a reference group.
- However, individuals may not endorse every aspect of the reference group's ideology. They may disagree with certain conservative attitudes, such as brahmacharya or vegetarianism, and instead align with more liberal groups regarding lifestyle choices.
2. Contextual Relevance:
- Reference groups are not static; they vary depending on the context and phase of behaviour. The same group may not serve as a reference for every aspect of an individual's life.
- For instance, a person may look to the Gandhians for political ideals but turn to liberal groups for lifestyle preferences, indicating a nuanced selection process based on specific values and norms relevant to different areas of life.
3. Diversity of Values:
- Individuals may choose reference groups based on the nature and quality of norms and values they prioritize.
- A group that aligns with one's political ideals may not necessarily resonate with their religious beliefs. For example, someone voting for the Communist Party may still hold positive inclinations towards religious institutions like the Ramakrishna Mission, showcasing the diversity of values and affiliations.
Understanding the dynamic nature of reference group selection helps illuminate the complexity of individual behaviour and the diverse influences shaping personal ideologies and preferences.
Selection of Reference Groups among Status categories or Sub-groups involving Sustained Interaction
A student often finds herself torn between two identities: her status as a member of the student community and her role within her familial and social subgroup. This dynamic presents a complex interplay of influences on her behaviour and decision-making process:
1. Subgroup Influence:
- Despite being part of the larger status category of students, the student's immediate interaction and sustained relationships with her family, husband, siblings, and friends within her subgroup significantly shape her attitudes and beliefs.
- For instance, when faced with decisions related to student politics, she may find her subgroup's opinions more compelling and influential than those of the broader student community. Thus, her subgroup becomes her primary reference group in this context.
2. Complex Reference Group Selection:
- The selection of reference groups is not always straightforward. In the case of voting behaviour, Merton highlights that formal organizations like trade unions may serve as potential reference groups for some members, while others may look to their immediate associates within the union.
- Similarly, within familial dynamics, conflicting value orientations among family members can diminish the mediating role of the primary group, leading individuals to seek validation from broader societal norms and values.
3. Impact of Divergent Value Orientations:
- When conflicting value orientations exist within the primary group, such as the family, the influence of the larger society becomes more significant.
- For example, in matters like love marriage, where family members may hold divergent opinions, the younger generation may feel more aligned with societal trends and norms rather than solely relying on familial influence. This phenomenon often manifests as a "generation gap."
The student's dilemma underscores the complexity of identity formation and decision-making within social contexts, where individuals must navigate multiple influences and reconcile conflicting value systems to shape their beliefs and behaviours.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF REFERENCE GROUPS
Understanding the structural elements of reference groups is essential for grasping the depth of Robert Merton's contributions to their study. Merton delves into how the structure of a group shapes the distribution of knowledge among its authorities and members regarding norms, values, and role performance. Additionally, he explores how non-conformity within the in-group, distinct from deviant behaviour, can highlight the potential for non-membership groups to serve as reference points.
Moreover, Merton sheds light on strategies for minimizing conflict arising from the structural implications of role-sets and status-sets within reference groups. By examining these structural dynamics, Merton enriches our comprehension of how reference groups function within societies and influence individual behaviour and decision-making processes.
Observability and Visibility: Patterned Avenues of Information about Norms, Values and Roleperformance
1. Communication Channels and Knowledge:
- Understanding others' role performances and group norms relies on communication.
- In institutions, accessing accurate knowledge about group behaviours can be challenging due to privacy concerns and asymmetry in information.
2. Asymmetry of Knowledge:
- Authorities often have greater insight into group norms and role performances.
- Excessive monitoring by authorities can lead to resistance from group members, necessitating a balance between visibility and privacy.
3. Optimal Visibility:
- Effective group functioning requires an optimal degree of visibility, balancing the need for oversight with respect for members' privacy and autonomy.
4. Uncertainty and Skepticism:
- Limited visibility may lead to skepticism or uncertainty among members about group norms and values.
- Non-membership groups may appear idealized to outsiders due to their lack of firsthand experience.
5. Idealization of Non-Membership Groups:
- Outsiders often develop unrealistic perceptions of non-membership groups, overlooking their inherent challenges and complexities.
Non-Conformity as Type of Reference Group Behaviour
1. Understanding Non-Conformity:
- Non-conformity involves dissenting from the norms of the in-group, aligning with those of an out-group.
- Non-conformity ≠ Deviant Behaviour: Non-conformists openly challenge norms, unlike criminals who may violate them for personal gain.
2. Characteristics of Non-Conformity:
- Non-conformists announce their dissent and reject the legitimacy of norms.
- They possess a vision of 'higher morality' and seek to alter group norms accordingly.
3. Structural Impact on Membership Group:
- Non-conformists are often perceived as courageous 'masters' by the membership group.
- Their defiance of group norms leads to uncertainty within the membership group.
- Non-conformists' alignment with non-membership reference groups initiates conflict and tension within the membership group, potentially sparking change.
Role-sets, Status-sets and Status Sequences
1. Role-Sets:
- A social status encompasses an array of associated roles, known as role-sets.
- Role-set complexity arises from diverse roles related to the status, involving interactions with various individuals such as colleagues, authorities, and parents.
- Conflicts within role-sets stem from differing expectations of role-partners, causing tension for the status occupant.
2. Conflict Resolution in Role-Sets:
- Not all role-partners exert equal influence, allowing the status occupant to prioritize expectations.
- Limited interaction with certain role-partners reduces conflict, granting the occupant exemption from observability.
- Occupational and professional associations offer support in navigating conflicting demands within the role-set.
3. Status-Sets:
- Individuals occupy multiple statuses concurrently, forming a status-set (e.g., teacher, husband, parent, etc.).
- Balancing demands from disparate statuses can pose challenges, potentially leading to conflicts.
4. Resolving Conflict in Status-Sets:
- Recognition of individuals' multifaceted statuses leads to less demanding expectations in certain contexts.
- Empathy fosters understanding and reduces pressures arising from conflicting status obligations.
- Status-set components are often aligned based on internalized values, minimizing conflict by avoiding incompatible statuses.
5. Symmetry in Status Selection:
- Individuals tend to choose statuses aligned with their existing values and backgrounds to avoid conflict.
- Harmonious integration of statuses in the status-set reflects a deliberate choice to minimize conflict and maintain coherence.