Qualitative and quantitative methods
Scientific research employs a variety of tools and frameworks to acquire knowledge, and understanding the distinction between scientific method and scientific methodology is crucial. The scientific method refers to the specific tools or techniques used for data collection and analysis, grounded in empirical observations and logical reasoning. Examples of these techniques include surveys, experiments, case studies, and statistical analyses. These methods serve as procedures to systematically acquire knowledge by gathering and interpreting data. In contrast, scientific methodology deals with the underlying logic and rationale behind the selection and use of these methods. It does not concern itself directly with the methods but rather explains, justifies, and clarifies why certain methods are chosen in scientific inquiry. For instance, in sociology, the methodology encompasses a discussion of surveys, experiments, and case studies as approaches, while the methods themselves are the practical tools used for data collection.
Techniques in scientific inquiry represent the actual application of methods, such as conducting interviews, surveys, or observations. The effectiveness of these techniques depends on their proper application; thus, there are right and wrong ways of employing them. Methodology examines these capabilities and limitations, planning the research procedures to ensure valid and reliable information gathering. It focuses on empirical investigation and understanding phenomena rather than merely the collection of data. The objective of methodology is to clarify how knowledge is constructed through processes such as collection, classification, and analysis of facts, rather than the knowledge itself.
The approach of natural scientists and social scientists to research methodology differs significantly. Natural scientists usually do not participate in the phenomenon they study; instead, they conduct controlled experiments in laboratories using instruments and chemicals to manage multiple variables. Social scientists, however, often engage directly with the social phenomena by interviewing participants and collecting data in real-world settings without the ability to control variables as strictly as natural scientists. They do not operate laboratories or use precise instruments but rely heavily on qualitative data collection methods.
The philosophical distinction between methodology and method lies in the fact that methodology encompasses the foundational philosophy of research. It includes the assumptions and values that guide both the collection of data and the interpretation of findings. Generally, natural sciences have more rigorous and systematic methodologies compared to social sciences, where methodological pluralism is more common. Examples of research questions that follow positivist methodological principles include inquiries into the economic cost of poll violence or the impact of strikes on industrial productivity, emphasizing structured sampling and research design.
Quantitative methods involve numerical measurement and statistical analysis to quantify relationships, behaviors, and phenomena. These methods seek to establish statistical patterns and generate generalizable conclusions, often using structured questionnaires and random sampling to ensure validity. Examples of quantitative research questions include investigating the percentage of students who use drugs or the proportion of prisoners who reject institutional norms. Statistical tools such as descriptive and inferential statistics, correlation, and regression analyses are essential for analyzing quantitative data.
Conversely, qualitative methods focus on understanding social realities through non-numerical data like interviews, observations, and document analysis. They explore complex social phenomena by uncovering underlying motivations, social processes, and contextual influences. Qualitative research emphasizes flexible, open-ended approaches, purposive sampling, and criteria such as credibility and transferability to ensure rigor. Examples include studying the organizational structure of wall-less prisons or the political stances on women’s reservation policies.
When designing research, quantitative and qualitative methods differ in several respects. Quantitative research starts with a specific problem and formulated hypotheses, uses operationalized concepts, and follows a structured, prescriptive design with representative sampling. In contrast, qualitative research addresses broader, loosely structured problems, allows hypotheses to emerge during research, sensitizes rather than operationalizes concepts, and uses flexible designs with purposive sampling. Quantitative studies often involve larger research teams and aim for inductive generalization, whereas qualitative studies are usually conducted by individual researchers focusing on analytical generalization. Finally, findings from quantitative research are presented as integrated narratives, while qualitative findings are typically reported as distinct themes or stories.
In summary, scientific method and methodology form the backbone of research, guiding how data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted. Quantitative and qualitative approaches serve different purposes and require distinct designs, each suitable for answering particular kinds of research questions. Understanding these differences is essential for conducting rigorous and meaningful scientific investigations in both natural and social sciences.