Lineage and Descent in India
Lineage and descent are foundational concepts in understanding the structure of kinship and social organization, particularly in societies like India, where family, caste, and community play a pivotal role in defining social identity and relationships. These systems not only govern personal relationships but also shape broader institutional, economic, and political frameworks.
A lineage, or vans or kul, is a unilineal descent group where members trace their ancestry through a common known ancestor. Unlike clans, which may be more generalized or symbolic, lineages are more specific, often forming subgroups within larger clans. For example, in Hindu mythology, Lord Ram's lineage is traced through King Dashrath, and further down to his sons Luv and Kush. This precise genealogical tracing fosters a strong sense of identity, continuity, and group solidarity.
Descent, on the other hand, is a broader term that refers to the tracing of kinship through successive generations. It helps establish who is descended from whom and forms the basis for group membership and social roles. When a society gives institutional recognition to descent, it leads to the formation of concrete descent groups such as lineages, clans, and gotras.
Another related concept is pravar, derived from parvarish, meaning upbringing. Pravar refers to all those who contribute to an individual’s growth and care. In modern contexts, this may include midwives, house managers, or caregivers. For instance, Filipino women working in U.S. homes as care providers become a part of this extended caregiving kinship, showing how descent and kinship roles are adaptable across cultures and contexts.
Thinkers' Perspectives
Several sociologists and anthropologists have examined the importance of lineage and descent in Indian society. G.S. Ghurye, an Indologist, emphasized that descent, particularly through the gotra system, plays a vital role in defining kinship, marriage, and caste relationships. The gotra system cuts across caste lines and serves both integrative and divisive functions. For example, Brahmins across regions trace their origin to one of eight legendary rishis, reinforcing shared ancestry and social cohesion.
Ananda Coomaraswamy noted that concepts like kula (lineage) and gotra had a significant bearing on marital rules. The practice of sapinda exogamy, wherein individuals avoid marrying within five generations on the mother’s side and seven on the father’s side, is rooted in descent logic. Sapinda, literally meaning "same body particles," also connects people ritually through ancestral rites.
T.N. Madan, through his ethnographic work on Pandits of rural Kashmir, illustrated how entire communities often consider themselves related through a network of primary, secondary, and tertiary kinship ties. This kinship web reinforces group identity and social expectations.
From a feminist perspective, lineage and descent systems have been critiqued for reinforcing patriarchy. Uma Chakravorty argues that these systems deny women inheritance rights and assign them solely reproductive roles, reserving productive roles for men. Gail Omvedt, taking a structural view, identifies caste itself as an extended form of descent. The origin of the four varnas from different parts of Brahma's body is a classic example of symbolic descent used to legitimize hierarchical stratification.
Andre Béteille also linked kinship with political functions. He showed how kinship acts as a mode of political recruitment and identity formation, citing the enduring political influence of the Nehru-Gandhi family as an example.
Significance of Lineage and Descent
The significance of lineage and descent extends across disciplinary boundaries. Paul Brass, for example, argued that kinship is as important in Indian politics as caste, revealing the socio-political utility of descent systems. These systems regulate marriage norms through the enforcement of incest taboos and the distinction between endogamous and exogamous groups. In Hindu society, both gotra and sapinda restrictions function to ensure social order by defining permissible marital unions. Similarly, in China, people with the same surname are discouraged from marrying, reflecting the global influence of descent-based norms.
Lineage and descent also play a key role in group formation. Through marriage, kinship bonds are created, which unite individuals into functioning family units and perpetuate the lineage through offspring. Economically, kinship often guides investment decisions, especially in communities that depend on trust-based networks. For instance, Hindu families in Mauritius frequently rely on kinship ties to co-establish businesses among brothers and cousins.
Kinship systems also provide social control by prescribing relational norms—for example, the expected behavior between a father and daughter, or between in-laws. These roles reinforce social cohesion and predictability in human interaction.
Inheritance and succession are other important functions of descent systems. Inheritance refers to the transfer of property, while succession involves the passage of social roles or statuses. Different cultures adopt different rules—such as primogeniture (eldest son inherits) or ultimogeniture (youngest son inherits)—based on their lineage norms.
Finally, in India, individuals often carry multiple collective identities shaped by their lineage and descent. These identities intersect with caste, religion, gender, and region, forming a complex matrix through which social relationships and hierarchies are constructed and maintained.
Lineage and descent are not just systems of genealogical tracking but powerful social institutions that shape identity, relationships, norms, and even political and economic behavior. Whether through classical frameworks like gotra and sapinda or contemporary caregiving kinship networks, descent continues to be a dynamic force in social life. Understanding these structures is essential for analyzing the persistence of traditional practices, as well as the evolution of social norms in modern societies.