Fact, value, and objectivity
Sociology as a discipline grapples with complex questions regarding the nature of knowledge—how facts and theories relate, the role of values in research, and the possibility of objectivity in the social sciences. These issues underpin methodological debates and shape how sociologists conduct and interpret research.
Fact and Theory: Misconceptions and Interdependence
A widespread misconception is that fact and theory are opposites. Popular culture often portrays theory as mere speculation or guesswork until proven, after which it “graduates” into fact. Facts are seen as concrete, undeniable truths, while theories are viewed as the realm of philosophers or speculative thinkers.
However, in scientific inquiry, the relationship between theory and fact is far more intertwined and dynamic. A fact is an empirically verifiable observation—something observable and measurable. A theory, on the other hand, is not mere speculation but a meaningful organization of facts; it explains how facts relate, offers generalizations, and helps predict new observations. Scientists depend on both—facts provide data points, and theories provide frameworks to interpret those data meaningfully.
Theories guide scientific investigation by:
Orienting researchers to what questions to ask and what data to collect.
Systematizing phenomena by classifying and organizing facts into coherent categories.
Generalizing findings by summarizing patterns.
Predicting future events or behaviors based on observed relationships.
Highlighting knowledge gaps where new inquiry is needed.
Conversely, facts shape theories by:
Initiating new theoretical ideas when unexpected observations arise.
Refining or reformulating theories to better align with evidence.
Rejecting theories incompatible with facts.
Shifting the focus or orientation of theoretical frameworks.
Clarifying and specifying theoretical concepts through concrete examples.
Science progresses through this ongoing interplay, where theories give facts meaning, and facts validate or challenge theories.
Definition of Science and Sociology's Scientific Status
Science is commonly understood as systematic, empirical, and objective investigation aiming to produce reliable knowledge. Sociology fulfills basic scientific criteria—it has established perspectives, agreed-upon subject matter, and methods. While it may not fit the strict positivist notion of a “positive science” that operates like physics, sociology is classified as a social science, blending empirical study with interpretive understanding.
Value Neutrality and Objectivity in Sociology
The issue of values and objectivity has long been debated in sociology.
Value neutrality, a concept championed by Max Weber, suggests that researchers should separate their personal values and biases from their professional research role to maintain scientific objectivity.
Scholars like Alvin Gouldner and Karl Mannheim acknowledge that complete value-freedom may be impossible but argue that striving for it remains desirable and essential for rigorous research.
Sociologists exercise objectivity by carefully choosing topics, employing systematic methods, and reporting findings regardless of personal preferences or societal pressures.
Understanding ‘Value’ in Research
In social sciences, the term value does not refer to economic value but to abstract principles, moral norms, and guiding ideas shaping social behaviour. Researchers carry a moral responsibility to present findings truthfully, driven by curiosity, theoretical advancement, and sometimes a commitment to societal change.
Perspectives on Objectivity and Research Bias
Some scholars argue that complete objectivity in sociology is unattainable because:
Social sciences inherently involve normative judgments—deciding not only what is but also what ought to be.
Researchers’ ideological perspectives, cultural backgrounds, and institutional affiliations inevitably influence their work.
Research funding and societal structures can introduce biases supporting dominant interests.
Yet, others, like Horton and Bouma, suggest claims of widespread research corruption are exaggerated. Howard Becker recognizes bias but also points to the complex, mixed impacts of sociological findings on different groups.
Sociology as a Value-Free Science: Weber's Concept
Sociology studies human behaviour embedded in societal values, so total value-freedom is impossible. Weber’s notion of value-free sociology means:
Sociologists must exclude ideological assumptions and avoid evaluative judgments in empirical research.
Researchers should be transparent about their own values but refrain from advocating specific values in their findings.
This allows sociology to pursue objective knowledge and intellectual independence, rather than becoming an instrument of political or cultural agendas.
This ideal facilitates intellectual emancipation and autonomy but faces practical challenges, as values inevitably influence topic selection and hypothesis formulation.
Problems of Objectivity in Sociological Research
Objectivity, defined as the impartial treatment of data free from prejudice, is a fundamental goal but elusive.
Sociologists like Durkheim emphasized treating social facts as “things” to avoid preconceived notions.
Weber stressed separating personal bias from research.
Anthropologists such as Radcliffe-Brown and Malinowski advocated for cultural relativism—avoiding ethnocentric judgments to enhance objectivity.
Challenges to Achieving Objectivity
Gunnar Myrdal argued that total objectivity is impossible since researchers’ perspectives and ideological orientations influence their work.
Choice of topics is subjective and influenced by personal and institutional factors.
Hypothesis formation often reflects theoretical and cultural biases.
Data collection methods like participant observation may introduce bias, as researchers can sympathize with or “nativize” the group studied.
Interview techniques and social contexts shape data through participant interactions and interpretations.
Examples include differing analyses of the same village by different scholars influenced by their theoretical orientations (e.g., Redfield’s functionalist vs. Lewis’s Marxist perspectives).
Strategies to Enhance Objectivity
Disclosing researchers’ value positions.
Using trained, skilled personnel.
Applying multiple methods (triangulation) to validate findings.
Explicitly stating fieldwork limitations and biases in publications.
Despite these, objectivity remains an aspirational ideal rather than an absolute reality.
Sociology as an Interpretative Discipline
Positivism, with its emphasis on external social facts and objective measurement, has been critiqued for an over-socialized conception of man—treating individuals as mere products of society without acknowledging individual agency and subjective meanings.
The Verstehen Approach and Symbolic Interactionism
Max Weber introduced the Verstehen (empathetic understanding) approach, emphasizing:
Understanding social action by interpreting the meanings and motives that individuals attach to their behaviour.
Sociologists should imaginatively place themselves in the actors’ positions to explain behaviour rationally.
Symbolic Interactionism further develops this by asserting that:
Individuals act based on meanings they assign to objects and events.
Meanings arise through social interaction and are constantly modified.
Sociologists must immerse themselves in social contexts to understand these meanings.
Social Anthropological and Ethnomethodological Approaches
Social Anthropology focuses on cultural meanings and patterns, often through ethnography, aiming to identify cultural themes and typologies (e.g., Ruth Benedict’s Dionysian vs. Apollonian types).
Ethnomethodology studies how social order is constructed through everyday commonsense interactions, emphasizing members’ perceptions and meaning-making processes (Harold Garfinkel).
Methods of Data Collection for Interpretative Sociologists
Interpretative sociologists use diverse methods beyond positivist tools, including:
Official statistics and historical documents (Weber).
Participant observation with detailed conversational transcripts.
Experiments (e.g., Garfinkel’s psychotherapeutic studies).
Case studies, life histories, diaries, and biographical records.
This methodological pluralism reflects the complexity of social reality and the need to capture subjective experiences alongside objective data.