Conformity and Deviance
Robert K. Merton, a prominent American sociologist, developed his theories on conformity and deviance as part of his broader sociological perspective, particularly in the context of structural functionalism. His work sought to understand how society functions, focusing on the interplay between social structures and individual behaviour. Let's delve into his theories:
1. Conformity:
Conformity, as conceptualized by Merton, refers to the acceptance of culturally prescribed goals and the means to achieve them. In Merton's strain theory, conformity occurs when individuals strive to achieve societal goals using approved means, such as education, hard work, and adherence to the law. The concept of conformity assumes that society provides legitimate opportunities for individuals to achieve success through socially accepted channels.
Examples:
- A student studying diligently to get good grades and pursue a successful career.
- An individual working hard at a job to climb the corporate ladder.
2. Deviance:
Deviance, on the other hand, occurs when individuals are unable to achieve societal goals through legitimate means, leading them to adopt alternative strategies. Merton argued that when societal structures place strain on individuals, such as limited access to legitimate opportunities for success, they may resort to deviant behaviour as a means of achieving those goals.
Types of Deviance (Based on Merton's Typology):
- Innovation: This occurs when individuals accept cultural goals but reject or are unable to access legitimate means. They innovate by finding alternative routes to success, often through illegal or unconventional means. For example, turning to crime to achieve financial success.
- Ritualism: In this mode of adaptation, individuals abandon the pursuit of societal goals but continue to adhere rigidly to the means. They may go through the motions of societal expectations without aspiring to achieve the goals. An example would be someone who continues to work diligently in a dead-end job despite having little hope of advancement.
- Retreatism: Retreatism involves rejecting both the goals and the means of society. These individuals disengage from society's expectations and may turn to substance abuse, homelessness, or other forms of withdrawal.
- Rebellion: Rebellion occurs when individuals reject both the societal goals and the means but replace them with alternative goals and means. They seek to replace existing societal structures with new ones that align with their values. Political radicals and revolutionaries often exemplify this mode of adaptation.
Examples:
- An individual resorting to theft because they cannot find employment to meet their financial needs.
- A person giving up on achieving material success and withdrawing from society to live off the grid.
Criticism
1. Cultural Variations and Goals:
Critique: Merton's theory assumes a universal set of cultural goals without considering variations across different societies or subcultures. Cultural goals may differ significantly based on factors such as class, ethnicity, and historical context, which can influence individuals' perceptions of success and the means to achieve it.
Sociologist: Albert Cohen, in his work on subcultural theory, argued that delinquent behaviour among lower-class youth can be understood as a reaction to their inability to achieve mainstream cultural goals.
2. Power Dynamics and Labelling:
Critique: Merton's theory does not adequately address the role of power dynamics in labelling behaviour as deviant. The process of defining certain behaviours as deviant is often influenced by those in positions of power, leading to the stigmatization of marginalized groups.
Sociologist: Howard Becker, in his labelling theory, emphasized how the application of labels such as "criminal" or "deviant" can result in the reinforcement of deviant identities and behaviours, perpetuating social inequalities.
3. Structural Constraints and Opportunities:
Critique: Merton's focus on individual adaptations to structural strain overlooks the broader structural constraints and opportunities that shape behaviour. Factors such as institutional discrimination, economic inequality, and access to resources can significantly impact individuals' choices and opportunities for conformity or deviance.
Sociologist: William Julius Wilson, in his research on urban poverty and social structure, emphasized the importance of structural factors in shaping patterns of deviance, particularly among disadvantaged populations.
4. Cultural Capital and Symbolic Interactionism:
Critique: Merton's framework neglects the role of cultural capital and symbolic interactions in shaping conformity and deviance. Cultural capital, including knowledge, skills, and social networks, can influence individuals' access to opportunities and their perceptions of legitimate means.
Sociologist: Pierre Bourdieu, known for his theory of cultural capital, highlighted how cultural resources contribute to social reproduction and the reproduction of inequality within society.
5. Intersectionality and Multiple Identities:
Critique: Merton's theory tends to oversimplify the relationship between individual behaviour and societal structures by overlooking the intersectionality of identities and experiences. Individuals may navigate multiple identities and social positions, which can intersect to shape their responses to structural strain.
Sociologist: Patricia Hill Collins, in her work on intersectionality, emphasized the importance of considering how race, gender, class, and other intersecting identities shape individuals' experiences of conformity and deviance within society.
These critiques offer valuable insights into the complexities of conformity and deviance, highlighting the need for a more nuanced understanding that considers the interplay of cultural, structural, and interactional factors in shaping individual behaviour.
deviance and anomie
Key Differences:
1. Scope: Durkheim's anomie is a broader concept that encompasses the breakdown of social norms and values in society, while Merton's theory of deviance specifically focuses on the strain between societal goals and means.
2. Level of Analysis: Durkheim's approach is more macro-level, emphasizing societal structures and their impact on collective behaviour, while Merton's theory is more micro-level, focusing on individual adaptations within the broader societal context.
3. Causal Factors: Durkheim emphasized rapid social change and lack of integration as causes of anomie, whereas Merton focused on structural strain resulting from the disjunction between cultural goals and means.
4. Outcome: While both theories acknowledge the potential for increased deviant behaviour under conditions of strain, Durkheim primarily linked anomie to higher rates of suicide, while Merton's theory considers a range of deviant adaptations to strain beyond suicide.
Labelling theory
Howard Becker's labelling theory, also known as social reaction theory or interactionist perspective, offers a unique lens through which to understand deviance and social control. Here's an overview:
Basic Tenets:
1. Social Construction of Deviance: Becker posited that deviance is not inherent in certain behaviours but rather is socially constructed through the reactions of others. What is considered deviant depends on how society labels certain behaviours, individuals, or groups.
2. Primary and Secondary Deviance: Becker distinguished between primary deviance, which involves the initial act of rule-breaking, and secondary deviance, which refers to the subsequent deviant behaviour that arises in response to societal reaction to the primary deviance. Secondary deviance often results from the stigmatization and labeling of individuals as deviant.
3. Labelling Process: According to Becker, the labelling process involves several stages:
- Detection: Certain behaviours are identified and labelled as deviant by social agents such as law enforcement, media, or other authority figures.
- Interpretation: The labelled individual or group is then subjected to interpretation by society, which may involve attaching stereotypes or stigmas to them.
- Stigmatization: Once labelled, individuals may internalize the deviant identity, leading to self-fulfilling prophecies and further deviant behaviour.
- Social Response: The labelled individual may face social sanctions, exclusion, or further intervention by authorities, which can exacerbate deviant behaviour.
4. Deviant Career: Becker introduced the concept of the "deviant career," which refers to the trajectory of individuals as they navigate the labelling process and become increasingly involved in deviant subcultures or activities. This concept highlights how societal reactions can shape individuals' identities and behaviour over time.
Key Concepts and Examples:
- Outsiders: Becker's influential work "Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance" explores the processes through which individuals and groups come to be labelled as deviant by society. He emphasizes the subjective nature of deviance and the role of social interactions in defining and perpetuating deviant behaviour.
- Marijuana Users: In one of his seminal studies, Becker examined the social construction of marijuana use. He found that marijuana users were not inherently deviant but became labelled as such due to societal reactions. This led to the formation of a deviant subculture around marijuana use, reinforcing the deviant identity of users.
- Moral Entrepreneurs: Becker also introduced the concept of "moral entrepreneurs," referring to individuals or groups who seek to influence societal norms and definitions of deviance. These moral entrepreneurs often play a role in shaping public perceptions and reactions to deviant behaviour.
Critiques and Contributions:
- Focus on Social Interaction: Becker's theory highlights the importance of social interaction and the subjective nature of deviance, challenging deterministic views of deviant behaviour.
- Neglect of Structural Factors: Critics argue that labelling theory neglects structural factors such as inequality, power dynamics, and institutionalized discrimination, which also influence the labelling process and contribute to deviant behaviour.
- Empirical Research: Becker's theory has inspired numerous empirical studies exploring various aspects of deviance, social control, and the consequences of labelling on individuals and groups.
In summary, Howard Becker's labelling theory offers a nuanced understanding of deviance as a socially constructed phenomenon shaped by interactions, interpretations, and societal reactions. It highlights the fluidity and subjectivity of deviant labels and emphasizes the consequences of labelling on individuals' identities and behaviour.
In summary, while both Durkheim's concept of anomie and Merton's theory of deviance address the relationship between societal structures and deviant behaviour, they differ in their scope, level of analysis, causal factors, and outcomes.
PARSONS AND MERTON: A CRITIQUE
- Parsons: Emphasized the need for a comprehensive theoretical framework to understand social phenomena. Advocated for the development of a grand theory of sociology that could integrate various social sciences.
- Merton: Focused on empirical research and the development of middle-range theories. Advocated for the application of sociological concepts to solve practical social problems.
Functional Approach:
- Parsons: Developed the structural-functional approach, which views society as a complex system with interrelated parts that function to maintain social order and stability.
- Merton: Expanded on Parsons' ideas by introducing the concept of manifest and latent functions, and dysfunctions. Emphasized the importance of analyzing both the intended and unintended consequences of social structures.
Social System and Social Structure:
- Parsons: Defined society as a system of interrelated parts, each serving specific functions to maintain equilibrium. Introduced the AGIL schema to analyse the functions of social systems.
- Merton: Examined social structures and institutions through empirical research, focusing on the role of social norms and values in shaping behaviour. Introduced the concept of reference groups to understand how individuals compare themselves to others.
Sociological Theory and Social Change:
- Parsons: Viewed social change as a gradual process of adaptation and evolution, guided by the functional requirements of society. Emphasized the importance of social stability and equilibrium.
- Merton: Acknowledged the role of social change and innovation in addressing social problems. Introduced the concept of social strain and the role of anomie in explaining deviant behaviour. Advocated for the use of sociological theories to address social inequalities and injustices.
While Parsons and Merton shared common interests in understanding social phenomena, they approached sociology from different perspectives and had divergent views on the role and relevance of sociological theory in addressing contemporary social issues.
Perspective on Sociology
Common Elements in Perspective on Sociology:
- Both Parsons and Merton viewed sociology as a scientific discipline, employing specialized methods to test hypotheses about social structure and change.
- They emphasized the importance of empirical research in sociology, which involved explanatory and diagnostic studies to identify and understand social problems.
Critique of Positivism:
- Critics have accused Parsons and Merton of adopting a positivist approach, neglecting the unique historical and symbolic aspects of social reality that require different methods of study.
- They argue that the implicit assumption of similarity between biological and social systems overlooks the complexities of social phenomena.
Differences in Vision of Sociology:
- Parsons has a universal and general approach to sociological theory, developing abstract conceptual schemes that transcend specific contexts.
- Merton takes a more modest view, focusing on specific issues and questions in sociological theory and methodology, such as reference groups, anomie, or the nature of science.
While both Parsons and Merton share a commitment to the scientific study of society, they diverge in their approaches to theory, with Parsons taking a more abstract and universal perspective, while Merton focuses on specific empirical questions and applications of sociological concepts.
Functional Approach
- Both Parsons and Merton adopt a functional approach in their sociological analysis.
- Merton's functionalism is contextualized within specific historical and societal contexts, considering the complexities of contemporary societies.
Merton's Historical Perspective:
- Merton critiques earlier functional theories, like those of Radcliffe-Brown and Malinowski, for their applicability to contemporary complex societies.
- He highlights how institutions like religion, which were integrative in simpler tribal societies, may become dysfunctional in modern societies with competing religions.
- Merton introduces concepts like latent and manifest functions, based on the historical experience of modern society.
Parsons' Universal Approach:
- Parsons' functional prerequisites, such as adaptation, goal-orientation, and integration, are not tied to specific historical or cultural contexts.
- His concepts are considered generalizable across societies and time periods.
Critiques of Functionalism:
- Critics argue that functionalism overemphasizes consensus and neglects dissent and conflict in society.
- Marxist sociologists criticize functionalism for overlooking class conflict, while political sociologists critique it for neglecting power dynamics in social institutions.
- While Merton and Parsons acknowledge aspects of dissent and conflict, critics argue that they fail to provide a balanced understanding of the role of consensus and conflict in society.
The main criticism of functionalism lies in its imbalance between the roles of consensus and conflict, a question that remains unresolved in the theories of both Merton and Parsons.